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VETERINARY 

STATE BOARD QUESTIONS 

AND ANSWERS 



V.^. KIMBALL, D.V.M. 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, VETERINARY MEDICINE, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA 



PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 






Copyright, 1914 
by j. b. lippincott company 



Electrotyped and Prin^d by J. B. Lippincott Company 
The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A, 

JUN 24 1914 

©CI,A376452 



PREFACE 

Being intimately associated with veterinary students, the author is 
fully aware of the feelings of fear and mysticism with which they are 
possessed when confronted with the ordeal of taking a State Board exam- 
ination. Partly to dispel these fears, but more to provide a means of self- 
quizzing, this work was undertaken. 

A large number of State Board questions from ten of the more repre- 
sentative eastern and a few of the middle and western States have been 
sorted over. Those contained herein represent what was left after elim- 
inating hundreds of duplicates. The few duplications which remain serve 
to illustrate the close relationship of the various subjects to one another. 
The overlapping and the necessary process of elimination resulted in the 
abbreviation of some subjects, especially Sanitary Science, Pathology and 
Zootechnics, to a considerable degree. Many topics, considered elsewhere, 
might rightly have been inserted under these headings. 

The author lays no claim to literary genius or bombastic propensities. 
The aim has been to supply brief, accurate answers, and this has been 
done many times at the expense of grammatical precision. 

The extensive library of the Veterinary School of the University of 
Pennsylvania, being at my disposal, has been thoroughly perused and the 
highest authorities on the different phases of veterinary science have been 
carefully consulted and compared. It would be impossible to make 
acknowledgment to all in the space allotted. 

To my colleagues, with whom it is a privilege to associate, and who have 
endeared themselves by their valuable suggestions and advice, my heartfelt 
thanks are due. 

It is the author's hope that this humble beginning will meet the 
student 's demands for a means of self -interrogation in preparing for State 
Board and Civil Service examinations. Incidentally, by reason of the 
complete index, it may, in a measure, satisfy the need of a convenient, com- 
plete, reliable reference book on veterinary science. To the end that 
this may be accomplished, criticisms and suggestions will be cheerfully 
received. 

May, 1914. ^- ^- E:imball. 

ill 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

CHEMISTRY 

Inorganic Chemistry. ..." 2 

Hydrogen 13 

Water 14 

Hydrogen Dioxide 15 

Oxygen 16 

Nitrogen 18 

Ammonia 19 

Air 20 

Carbon 20 

Sulphur 23 

Disinfectants and Antiseptics 24 

Phosphorus 25 

Halogens 25 

Gold 27 

Silver 27 

Lead 28 

Mercury 28 

Metals of the Alkalies 29 

Calcium Group 29 

Zinc 31 

Boron 31 

Aluminum 31 

Bismuth 31 

Iron 31 

Arsenic 33 

Antimony 34 

Organic Chemistry 34 

Fermentation and Putrefaction 34 

Alcohols 35 

Chloroform 36 

Iodoform 36 

Chloral 36 

Phenols 37 

Petroleum 37 

Alkaloids 38 

Toxicology 38 

Physiological Chemistry 40 

Carbohydrates 41 

Fats 41 

Milk 41 

Urine 42 

ANATOMY 

Osteology 44 

Arthrology 51 

Myology 57 

Circulatory Organs 62 

Neurology 71 

Digestive Organs 77 

Respiratory Organs 85 

Urinary Organs 89 

Sexual Organs. 90 

Organs of Special Sense 93 

Skin, Hair and Hoop 95 

Ductless Glands 96 

Topographical Anatomy 98 

Histological Anatomy 99 

V 



vi CONTENTS 

PHYSIOLOGY 

Blood 106 

Heart 109 

Blood-vessels 110 

Vascular Glands 112 

Respiration 113 

Digestion 115 

Absorption 122 

Skin 123 

Urine 125 

Nutrition 126 

Animal Heat 128 

Muscular System 130 

Nervous System 131 

Senses 136 

The Foot 138 

Generation and Development 139 

PATHOLOGY 

Hypertrophy and Atrophy 143 

Degenerations 143 

Inflammation 144 

Tumors 145 

Blood 146 

Bones and Joints 147 

Heart and Blood-vessels 148 

Respiratory Organs 150 

Abdominal Organs 152 

Genito-urinary Organs 153 

Nervous System 155 

Muscles 155 

Eye 155 

Skin 156 

Infectious Diseases 157 

Bacteriology 160 

THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE 

General and Differential Diagnosis 165 

Acute General Infectious Diseases 172 

Chronic Infectious Diseases 179 

Diseases of Blood and Blood-forming Organs 182 

Diseases of Metabolism 183 

Diseases of the Urinary Organs 184 

Diseases of the Circulatory Organs 186 

Diseases of the Respiratory Organs 188 

Diseases of the Digestive Organs 191 

Diseases of the Nervous System 199 

Diseases of the Organs of Locomotion 201 

Diseases of the Skin ' 202 

SURGERY 

Wounds 206 

Inflammation. 209 

Ulcer, Fistula and Gangrene 210 

Tumors 211 

Concrements 212 

Hernia and Prolapse 212 

Bones 212 

Joints 214 

Tendons and Tendon-sheaths 215 

Muscles and Nerves 216 

Diseases of Blood-vessels 217 

Eye, Ear and Throat 217 

Head and Neck 223 

Diseases of the Thorax 228 



CONTENTS vii 

Diseases op the Abdomen 229 

Diseases of the Urinary Organs 232 

Diseases of the Generative Organs 234 

Diseases op the Spinal Column and Pelvis 238 

Diseases of the Fore Limb 239 

Diseases of the Hind Limb 245 

Diseases of the Foot 250 

Methods of Restraint, Casting, Etc 257 

OBSTETRICS 

Obstetrical Anatomy 259 

Physiology 264 

Pregnancy 269 

Abortion 276 

Labor 278 

Diseases Incident to I*regnancy and Labor 284 

Diseases of the New-born 294 

MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS 

Prescription Writing 332 

Toxicology 338 

Serum Therapy 341 

Vaccine Therapy 343 

SANITARY SCIENCE— MEAT AND MILK HYGIENE 

Air and Ventilation 346 

Infectious Diseases 347 

Prophylaxis 349 

Milk and Meat Hygiene 351 

ZOOTECHNICS 360 

INDEX 367 



VETERINARY STATE BOARD 
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

CHEMISTRY 

Distinguish between chemistry and physics. 

Physics is the science of matter and energy. It deals with those 
changes in matter which do not involve a change in composition. 
It also deals with the doctrine of equilibrium and with that of 
motions. The latter are visible, as those of mass, in fall, projection, 
rotation, propagation in a plane, etc.; or invisible, and only per- 
ceptible by their results, as sound, heat, light and electricity. 

Chemistry reveals to us the composition of matter, and in the 
formation of new compounds, acquaints us with the rules and laws 
by which its various forms act upon one another. It deals with 
those changes in matter which do involve a change in composition. 

Define specific gravity. If the specific gravity of a substance is 1.5, 
how many c.c. of distilled water will ten grammes represent? 

The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio between the 
weight of any volume of the substance and the weight of a like 
volume of some other substance taken as a standard. For solids and 
liquids, the standard is distilled water at its temperature of maxi- 
mum density ; for gases and vapors, the standards are hydrogen and 
air at a temperature of 0° C. and a barometric pressure of 76 centi- 
metres of mercury. 

If the specific gravity of the substance in question is 1.5, 10 
grammes would equal 15 grammes of water ; 1 gramme of water 
equals 1 c.c, hence 15 grammes would equal 15 c.c. 

How is the specific gravity of a liquid determined? 

There are several ways. The hydrometer is usually employed, 
or comparisons can be made of the weights of equal volumes of the 
liquid and water. 

What effect on the volume of a gas has (a) change of pressure, (b) 
change of temperature? 

(a) The volume of a gas varies inversely as the pressure upon 
O it {BoyWs law). 

(b) All gases approximately expand equally for equal rises of 

1 



2 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

temperature. Theoretically, at 273 degrees below zero (absolute 
zero) the gas becomes nothing, and for each degree of rise in tem- 
perature it expands .g-T-g" ^^ t^® volume which it occupied at 0° C. ; 
hence 273 volumes of air at 0° C. becomes 274 volumes at 1° C, 
275 at 2° C, etc. 

Describe the process of electro-plating. 

This process depends upon electrolysis, that is, the decomposition 
of a chemical compound, the electrolyte, into its constituent parts, 
called ions, by an electric current. In a battery or in an electro- 
lytic bath, the metallic, or electropositive ion is carried with the 
current through the electrolyte. Similarly, when a chemical salt 
is electrolysed, the metallic base is carried to the cathode (the nega- 
tive pole of the battery). Therefore, by attaching the object to be 
plated at the cathode in a bath composed of a silver, gold or copper 
solution, it will become coated, or plated, with silver, gold or copper. 

Define evaporation, electrolysis, amorphism, dialysis. 

Evaporation is the process of converting a substance, especially 
a liquid, into a vapor. 

Electrolysis — see answer to preceding question. 

Amorphism relates to the non-crystalline character of some 
substances, such as starch and glue. 

Dialysis is the passing of a dissolved substance through a dia- 
phragm of parchment into another liquid. 

Convert (a) 104° F. to its equivalent in Centigrade degrees, (b) 38° C. 
to Fahrenheit scale. 

(a) (104° F. — 32) X 5-= 40° C. 

(b) (38° C. X i) + 32 == 100.4° F. 

Inorganic Chemistry 
Define chemistry. 

Chemistry is the science which treats of the properties and 
composition of substances, their changes in composition and the 
phenomena attending such changes. The subject of chemistry is 
divided for convenience into inorganic, organic and physiologic. 

State the difference between a chemical and a physical change, with 
an example of each. 
A chemical change is one occurring in the molecules of matter 
in which the substance or substances lose their identity by the for- 
mation of new substances. Example: Paper, when burned, yields 
carbon dioxide, water and some charcoal. 

A physical change is one occurring in a mass of matter in which 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 3 

the substance retains its original composition. Example: Water, 
changing into ice or steam. 

Define the following terms: analysis, synthesis, atom, molecule, com- 
bustion, chemical affinity, compound. 

Analysis is the process of determining the composition of a sub- 
stance. There are two kinds, qualitative and quantitative. 

Synthesis is the artificial building up of a chemie compound, 
by the union of its elements. 

An atom is, theoretically, the smallest particle of an element 
which can exist. 

A molecule is, theoretically, the smallest particle of a compound 
that can exist. 

Combustion is oxidation accompanied by the development of 
heat and light. 

Chemical affinity is the affinity or attraction which exists between 
the atoms of certain substances. 

A compound is a substance made up of two or more elements, 
united to each other in definite proportions: 

Define and illustrate acid, base, salt, alkali. 

An acid is a compound having electronegative, or anionic, prop- 
erties and containing hydrogen which is replaceable by metals to 
form salts. It produces hydrogen ions when dissolved in water 
or other dissociating liquids. Acids change blue litmus to red. 
Example: hydrochloric acid, HCl. 

A base is a substance which unites with an acid to form a salt. 
Bases produce hydroxyl ions when dissolved in water or other dis- 
sociating liquids. Example: Zinc unites with sulphuric acid to 
form zinc sulphate. 

A salt is a compound formed by the union of a base with an acid. 
Example: Iron sulphate is formed by the action of sulphuric acid 
on iron. 

An alkali is a soluble substance having strong basic (electro- 
positive) properties, usually applied to the oxides and hydroxides 
of the alkali metals and metals of the alkali earths. Such substances 
are very soluble in water, change red litmus to blue, unite with and 
neutralize acids, forming salts, and emulsify fats. Example : potas- 
sium and sodium. 

Define efflorescent substance, deliquescent substance. Give an ex- 
ample of each. 
An efflorescent substance is one which is converted from a 
crystalline solid to an amorphous powder on exposure to the air. 



4 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

due to the loss of its water of crystallization. Example: crystal- 
line sodium sulphate, exposed to the air, becomes a white powder. 
A deliquescent substance is one which can be converted from a 
solid salt into a liquid form by the absorption of moisture from 
the air. Example: calcium chloride left in an open vessel for a 
few days will become wet and in time will even liquefy. 

Define acid salt, amalgam, molecular repulsion, neutralization. 

An acid salt is one in which only part of the hydrogen of an 
acid is replaced by a metal or basic radical. Example : NaHS04. 

An amalgam is an alloy containing mercury, as tin and mercury. 

Molecular repulsion is the term applied to the tendency of 
molecules to separate. According to the theory of the constitution 
of matter, the molecules of every mass are in ceaseless motion, 
hitting and rebounding from one another. In gaseous masses, the 
molecules move without restraint; hence gases always tend to 
expand. 

Neutralization is the term applied to the interaction between 
acids and bases with the result that both acid and basic properties 
disappear, i.e., are neutralized. It consists in the union of the 
hydrogen ion of an acid with the hydroxyl ion of a base to form 
water. 

Define valence and write formulas of four compounds containing ele^ 
ments having different valences, indicating the valence in 
each case. 

Valence is the definite capacity which every elementary atom 
has for uniting with other atoms. Hydrogen is taken as the standard 
and its valency is assumed to be unity. In HCl, CI is univalent 
because it combines with one atom of H; in HgO, is bivalent; 
in NH3, N is trivalent ; in CH^, C is quadrivalent. 

Define monad, diad, triad, tetrad, pentad. Give an example of each. 

Monad is an element having a valency of one ; diad, a valency of 
two; triad, three; tetrad, four; pentad, five. 

Examples: see preceding answer; pentad, phosphorus as in 
PCI.. 

Define monobasic acid, dibasic acid, tribasic acid. Give an example of 
each. 
A monobasic acid is one containing in its molecule one replace- 
able atom of hydrogen, as nitric acid, IINO3. 

A dibasic acid is one having two replaceable atoms of hydrogen 
in its molecule, as sulphuric acid, H2SO4. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 5 

A tribasic acid is one having three replaceable atoms of hydrogen 
in its molecule, as phosphoric acid, H3PO4. 

Define crith, atomic weight, and molecular weight. 

A crith is the unit of weight for gases, it being the weight, in a 
vacuum, of a litre of hydrogen gas at 0° C. A crith = 0.0899 gramme. 

Atomic weight is the weight of an atom of a substance compared 
with the weight of an atom of hydrogen which is taken as unity. 
(In scientific work, oxygen is taken as the standard, but the U. S. P. 
takes hydrogen.) 

Molecular weight is the sum of the atomic weights of the element 
or elements contained in a molecule of a substance. 

Define allotropism and reduction. 

Allotropism is the property possessed by certain elements of 
presenting themselves in two or more different forms, as the allo- 
tropic forms of carbon, seen in the diamond, charcoal and graphite. 

Reduction is the process of abstracting oxygen from an oxide. 
(This is a generally accepted definition, although the subject of 
reduction has a deeper significance, as may be instanced in the 
reduction of calomel with stannous chloride, which also involves 
the subject of valence. SnClg + 2HgCl = SnCl^ + Hg2. See oxi- 
dation, p. 16.) 

What is a metal? 

A metal is an element which is predominantly basic in its chemi- 
cal behavior. Metals are solid at ordinary temperature, except 
mercury, usually opaque, have a more or less metallic lustre, are 
malleable, ductile, tenacious, good conductors of heat and elec- 
tricity, and are capable of forming basic substances and salts. 

What is meant by isomerism? 

Two or more compounds which contain the same elements in the 
same relative proportions by weight in the molecule, but differ more 
or less widely in their physical, chemical and physiological proper- 
ties, are called isomeric, e.g., G3H6O3, lactic acid, and CgH^g^e* 
grape sugar. 

Define chemical action. Name three kinds and give an example of 
each. 

Chemical action refers to the changes taking place in two or 
more elements when brought in contact or disintegrated. 

Light : Silver chloride decomposes in the presence of light. 

Heat : Heat decomposes red oxide of mercury into mercury and 
oxygen. 



6 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Electricity: By electrolysis, water is split into hydrogen and 
oxygen. 

How many elements are there? 

There are about eighty known elements. 

Give the symbol and atomic weight of each of the following elements: 
chlorine, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, potassium and 
sodium. 
Chlorine, CI, 35.2; hydrogen, H, 1; nitrogen, N, 14; oxygen, 
0, 16 ; potassium, K, 39 ; sodium, Na, 23. 

Name five elements. Give the sjmibol and one principal use of each 
element named. 
Carbon, C, is the chief element of coal. 
Phosphorus, P, is used in matches. 
Arsenic, As, is used in medicine. 
Copper, Cu, is used in the arts. 
Chlorine, CI, is used as a bleaching agent. 

Define incompatibility. Name three forms and give an example of each. 
Incompatibility is that relation between medicines which ren- 
ders their admixture unsuitable. There are three forms, viz., chemi- 
cal, physical or pharmaceutical, and physiological or therapeutic. 
A chemical incompatibility exists when a new compound is 
formed, as silver nitrate and sodium chloride form silver chloride ; 
a physical, when an unsightly appearance is produced, as when 
resinous tinctures are added to aqueous solutions, the resins sepa- 
rate; a physiological, when there is an antagonistic action between 
the drugs, as atropine, which checks secretion, and pilocarpine, 
which stimulates glandular activity. 

Write the chemical formula for (a) sulphuric acid, (b) nitric acid, (c) 
potassium iodide, (d) copperas, (e) epsom salts. 
(a) H2SO4, (b) HNO3, (c) KI, (d) FeSO,, TH^O, (e) MgSO,, 
7H2O. 

What is meant by synthesis? Name two products that can be made 
this way. 
Synthesis is the artificial building up of a chemic compound 
by the union of its elements. 

Water can be made by uniting hydrogen and oxygen. Cupric 
oxide can be made by heating metallic copper in the air. 

What is meant by diffusion of gases ? Describe an experiment to illus- 
trate diffusion of gases. 
A diffusion, similar to that of liquids, takes place when two 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 7 

different gases are separated from each other by some porous sub- 
stance, such as burned clay, gypsum, etc. 

In the open end of an unglazed clay cylinder (such as is used 
in galvanic experiments) there is fixed a glass tube about one metre 
long, its open end terminating in a dish containing water ; the cylin- 
der and tube are filled with air. Over the porous cylinder is placed 
a wider vessel filled with hydrogen. The latter presses faster into 
the cylinder than the air escapes from it; the air in the cylinder 
and tube is displaced and rises in the water in bubbles. When the 
escape of gas ceases, the tube and cylinder are almost filled with 
pure hydrogen. 

State which of the following gases are (a) lighter than air, (b) heavier 
than air: oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, ammonia gas, 
sulphur dioxide, chlorine. 

(a) Hydrogen, ammonia gas, nitrogen. 

(b) Sulphur dioxide, chlorine, oxygen. 

Distinguish in meaning between the following sufHxes when used in 
names of chemical compounds: (a) ous and ic, (b) ate and 
ite. Give examples. 

(a) ous indicates that a compound contains less, and ic that it 
contains more, of the other, or electronegative, element. An ex- 
planation of these terms involves the subject of valence. Fre- 
quently, two elements unite to form two or more compounds, for 
instance, mercury and chlorine unite to form mercurous chloride, 
HggCla, and also, mercuric chloride, HgCla. The electropositive 
atom (mercury) terminates in ous, indicating the lower valence 
(or a valence of 2 for two atoms), while ic indicates the higher 
valence (or a valence of 2 for one atom). 

(b) The suffix ite indicates that a salt is derived from an acid, 
terminating in ous (as NagSOg, sodium sulphite), and the suffix ate 
that it is derived from an acid terminating in ic (as Na2S04, sodium 
sulphate). 

Give the formula and the chemical name of each of the following : (a) 

washing soda, (b) saltpetre, (c) blue vitriol, (d) corrosive 

sublimate, (e) Glauber's salt, (f) Rochelle salt. 

(a) Sodium carbonate, NagCOg, lOHgO. (b) Potassium nitrate, 

KNO3. (c) Copper sulphate, CuSO^. (d) Mercuric chloride, 

HgClg. (e) Sodium sulphate, NagSOi. (f) Potassium sodium 

tartrate, KNaCiH^Os. 

Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds. 

Organic compounds contain carbon and therefore, upon bum- 



8 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

ing, char. When pure they are completely consumed under con- 
tinued heat ; any residue remaining after the disappearance of the 
char indicates the presence of mineral matter. They are the essen- 
tial compounds of plant and animal structures and their molecular 
composition may be very complex, but includes only a few elements. 
An inorganic compound is any one of the large series of com- 
pounds (minerals, metals, etc.) which are not directly connected 
with vital processes, either in origin or nature, and which are 
broadly and relatively contrasted with organic compounds. 

Distinguish between solution and emulsion. 

The term solution is applied to any clear and homogeneous 
liquid obtained by causing the transformation of matter from a 
solid or gaseous state to the liquid state, by means of a liquid called 
the solvent or menstruum. Solutions may be made by uniting two 
liquids, as when we dissolve oil in ether. 

The term emulsion is used to designate a more or less homo- 
geneous liquid, rendered opaque or milky by the suspension in it 
of finely divided particles of fat, oil or resin. 

Distinguish in meaning between the following when used in names of 
chemical compounds : hypo and per. Give examples to illus- 
trate the differences. 
Hypo is prefixed to a compound containing less of the negative 
element, oxygen, than the ous compound in that series, as hypo- 
chlorous acid, HCIO, and chlorous acid, HCIO2. 

Ter or hyper indicates that the compound contains a greater 
amount of oxygen than the ic compound in the series, as perchloric 
acid, HCIO4, and chloric acid, HCIO3. We have the term peroxide, 
applied to compounds very rich in oxygen. 

Name a substance used as a bleaching powder and explain chemically 

its bleaching properties. 

Hypochlorite of lime, CaOCla. The element chlorine has a strong 

affinity for hydrogen. In the presence of moisture, it unites with 

the hydrogen and thus liberates oxygen, which acts upon the coloring 

matter and bleaches it. 

Write the equation to show the reaction between (a) sulphuric acid 
and zinc, (b) hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate, (c) 
sodium carbonate and calcium hydroxide. 

(a) H2SO4 + Zn = ZnSO^ + H2. 

(b) 2HCl + CaC03=:CaCl2 + "H20 + C'02. 

(c) Na2C03-|-Ca(OH)2 = 2NaOH + CaC03. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 9 

Distinguish between a mixture and a compound. 

A mixture consists of a combination of two or more substances 
each of which retains its individual characteristics and may be 
separated from each other by mechanical means, no matter how 
thoroughly mixed and finely commingled. Example: Iron filings 
and sulphur may be mixed and if no heat is added, the iron can be 
removed from the mixture with an electromagnet ; if heat had been 
added to the mixture, a compound, ferrous sulphide (FeS) would 
have been formed, which would require chemical means to separate. 

Distinguish between a metal and a non-metal. 

See ** metals, '^ p. 5. Non-metals do not possess a metallic 
appearance and are known as metalloids. To these belong sulphur, 
carbon, phosphorus, oxygen, etc. The line between metals and non- 
metals is not very marked. Thus, mercury, despite the fact that 
it is liquid at ordinary temperature, must be included among the 
metals because of its chemical properties. 

Mention (a) three light metals and (b) three heavy metals. Give the 
S5niibol and atomic weight of each. 

(a) Aluminum, Al, 26.9; sodium, Na, 23; potassium, K, 39. 

(b) Gold, Au, 195.7 ; lead, Pb, 205 ; iron, Fe, 56. 

Name ten non-metallic elements and write the symbol of each. 

Hydrogen, H; oxygen, 0; nitrogen, N; sulphur, S; carbon, C; 
phosphorus, P ; chlorine, CI ; bromine, Br ; iodine, I ; fluorine, F. 

Complete the following equations : 

1. HCl + AgNOg = 

2. 2NH,0H + HoSO, = 

3. H2O + Na = 

1. HCl + AgNOg = AgCl + HNO3. 

2. 2NH4OH + H2SO, = (NHJ2SO4 + 2H2O. 

3. H2O + Na = NaOH + H. 

Complete the following equations : 

1. AgNOg + KCl = 

2. ZnCl^ + 2K0H = 

3. CaF. + H^SO, = 

4. 3HC1 + HNO3 = 

5. Ca(0H)2 + 2NH4Cl = 

1. AgNOg + KCl = AgCl + KNO3. 

2. ZnCl^ + 2K0H = 2KC1 + Zn(0H)2. 

3. CaF^ + H^SO^ = 2HF + CaSO^. 

4. 3HC1 + HNO3 = 2H2O + NO + 3C1. 

5. Ca(0H)2 + 2NH4CI = CaCl^ + 2(NH,0H). 



10 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Complete the following equations : 

1. AgNOg + NaCl = 

2. CuSO^ + H^S = 

3. 2NaCl + HgSO, = 

1. AgNOs + NaCl = AgCl + NaNO^. 

2. CuSo4 + H^S = H^SO, + CuS. 

3. 2NaCl + H^SO, = Na^SO, -f- 2HC1. 

Complete the following equations : 

1. NaNOg + HgSO, = 

2. CaC03 + 2HCl = 

3. 2NaCl + 2H2SO4 + MnO^ = 

4. Cu + 2H2SO4 = 

1. NaNOs + H2SO4 = NaHSO^ + HNO3. 

2. CaCO, + 2HC1 = CaCl^ + H^O + CO^. 

3. 2NaCl + 2H2SO4 + MnOg = CI^ + Na.SO^ + MnSO^ + 
2H2O. 

4. Cu + 2H2SO, = CuSO, + 2H2O + SO2. 

Complete the following equations : 

1. Pb(N03), + H,S = 

2. C'a(OH)2 + 2HCl = 

3. 2NaOH + H^SO^ = 

1. Pb(N03)2 + H^S == 2HNO3 + PbS. 

2. Ca(0H)2 + 2HC1 = CaCl^ + 2H2O. 

3. 2NaOH + H2SO4 = Na^SO^ + 2H2O. 

Complete the following chemical equation. Give the name of the new 
compound formed. 
Zn + 2HC1 = 
Zn + 2HC1 = ZnCls + 2H. ZnCl^ = Zinc chloride. 

Write the equation to express the reaction that takes place between 
sulphuric acid and sodium carbonate. Name the compounds 
formed. 
H2SO4 + NaaCOg = Na2S04 (sodium sulphate) + HgOC water ) + 
CO2 (carbon dioxide) . 

Write the equation to express the reaction between (a) potassium 
chloride and sodiimi nitrate, (b) ammonium chloride and 
calcium hydroxide, (c) ferrous sulphide and hydrochloric 
acid. 

(a) KCl + NaNOg = NaCl + KNO3. 

(b) 2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 = CaCl2 + 2(NH40H). 

(c) FeS + 2HC1 = FeCl^ + H^S. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 11 

Give the chemical symbol and the atomic weight of each of the follow- 
ing: (a) hydrogen, (b) chlorine, (c) iron, (d) mercury, 
(e) oxygen. 
(a) H, 1; (b) CI, 35; (c) Fe, 56; (d) Hg, 198.5; (e) 0, 16. 
Give the chemical name of each of the following: (a) FeCl,,, (b) 
NaHC03, (c) CO,, (d) As,03, (e) H3PO,. 
(a) Ferrous chloride, (b) sodium bicarbonate, (c) carbon diox- 
ide, (d) arsenic trioxide, (e) phosphoric acid. 

Write the chemical names of the substances whose formulas are as 
follows: (a) CaCOH)^, (b) KCIO3, (c) PH3, (d) KNO3, (e) 
HgCl, (f) SnCl,, (g) KMnO,, (h) NO, (i) CO, (j) AgNO^. 

(a) Calcium hydroxide, (b) potassium chlorate, (c) phosphine, 
(d) potassium nitrate, (e) mercurous chloride, (f) stannous chlo- 
ride, (g) potassium permanganate, (h) nitric oxide, (i) carbcwa 
monoxide, (j) silver nitrate. 

Write the graphic formula of (a) sulphuric acid, (b) ammonia, (c) 
potassium chlorate. 

(a) H-0\g^O 

(b) H-N<^ 

(c) Cl-0-O-O-K 

Give two laws relating to chemical combinations. 

1. Law of constant or definite proportions. The same compound 
is always composed of the same elements in constant proportions by 
weight. 

2. Law of multiple proportions. When two elements unite to 
form several compounds the higher proportions of each are even 
multiples of the lowest. 

Explain fully how the percentage composition of any compound is 
determined. 
Obtain the molecular weight of the compound by adding together 
the atomic weights of the elements it contains. Then, the percentage 
of any one element is obtained by dividing its atomic weight by the 
molecular weight. For instance, the molecular weight of KNO, 
is, 38.82 + 13.93 + 47.64 = 100.39. The percentage composition 
of K is 38.82 ~- 100.39, or 38.66 per cent. 
Define and illustrate the law of definite proportions. 
Definition given above. 

Sodium chloride, NaCl, is always composed of 23 parts by weight 
of Na and 35.5 parts of CI. 



12 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

State Avogadro's law. 

Equal volumes of gases, compared under identical conditions of 
temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules. 

Name the elements that enter into the composition of each of the fol- 
lowing alloys : (a) brass, (b) German silver, (c) soft solder, 
(d) bell metal. 

(a) Copper and zinc, (b) copper, zinc and nickel, (c) tin and 
lead, (d) copper and tin. 

Is glass a compound or a mixture? To what does green glass owe its 
color? 

Glass is a mixture. G-reen glass owes its color to silicates of iron 
derived from the impure materials of which it is made. 

What element occurs in all acid compounds? 
Hydrogen. 

Name two classes of salts and distinguish between the classes named* 
Acid salts are acids in which only a portion of their replaceable 
hydrogen atoms have been replaced, e.g., KHSO4, potassium hydro- 
gen sulphate. Acid salts are generally acid in reaction to litmus. 

Basic salts are salts containing a higher proportion of a base 
than is necessary for the formation of a salt, e.g., Pb(0H)N03, basic 
lead nitrate. 

What gas is evolved when copper acts on nitric acid? Account for 
the formation of this gas. 
Nitric oxide, NO. 
3Cu + 8HNO3 = 3Cu(N03)2 + 2N0 + 4:11^0. 

Determine how much sulphuric acid and how much copper will be 
needed to produce 1,000 grammes of copper sulphate by the 
reaction Cu + 2H2SO4 =. CuSO^ + SO2 + 2H2O. [Atomic 
weight of S ^ 32, of copper = 63, of O ■=■ 16.] 
See p. 11 regarding determination of percentage composition. 
Molecular weight of Cu = 63, of sulphuric acid = 196, of copper 
sulphate = 159 ; it takes 63 + 196 or 259 parts of copper and 
sulphuric acid to make 159 parts of copper sulphate, So, 259 : 159 = 
X : 1000 ; X = 1629. 63/259 of 1629 = 396, and 196/259 of 1629 = 
1233. Substituting grammes for parts, we have 396 grammes of 
copper and 1233 grammes of sulphuric acid necessary to make 1000 
grammes of copper sulphate. 

Find the number of grammes of oxygen that can be prepared from 10 
grammes of KCIO3. [Atomic weight of K = 39, of CI = 35, 
of O = 16.] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 13 

39 + 35 + 48 = 122, the molecular weight of KCIO3. 

48 -^ 122 = .393, the percentage composition of oxygen. 

10 grammes of KCIO3 would contain 3.93 grammes of oxygen. 

Calculate the weight of carbonic acid gas that can be obtained from 
one pound of marble. Write the equation. [Atomic wt. 
of Ca = 40, of O = 16, of C = 12.] 
CaCOg + heat = CaO + CO^. 

40 + 12 + 48 = 100, the molecular weight of calcium carbonate 
(marble). 12 + 32 = 44, the molecular weight of carbon dioxide 
(carbonic acid gas). Therefore .44 is the percentage composition 
of COo. From one pound of marble, .44 of a pound of CO2 could 
be obtained. 

Under standard conditions how many litres of hydrochloric acid will 

result from the action of sulphuric acid on 117 grammes of 

common salt? [Na = 23, CI = 35.5.] 

2NaCl + H2SO4 =: Na.SO, + 2HC1. The molecular weight of 

NaCl = 58.5. The molecular weight of HCl = 36.5. 58.5 : 36.5 = 

117 : X. X = 73g. One litre of hydrogen weighs 0.0899 gramme 

under standard conditions. 73 -^ 0.0899 = 812 litres. 

How much chlorine can be derived from 50 grammes of NaCl? 
[Atomic weight of Na = 23, of CI = 35.5.] 
23 4- 35.5 = 58.5, the molecular weight of NaCl. 35.5 : 58.5 = 
X : 50. X = 30.34 grammes. 

HYDROGEN 

What are the physical and chemical properties of hydrogen? 

Hydrogen, the lightest of all elements, is a colorless, odorless, 
tasteless gas ; combustible, burning with a colorless flame, but is not 
a supporter of combustion. The resulting compound of its com- 
bustion in air is water. It is only slightly soluble in water, is 
electropositive and capable of combining with many elements. 

Give details of the preparation of hydrogen by the action of an acid 
on a metal. Write the equation. 

Place a quantity of granulated zinc in a glass flask and cover 
it with dilute hydrochloric acid. Adjust a piece of glass tubing in 
the stopper of the flask and after the air of the flask is expelled, 
hydrogen will pass from the tubing. Zn + 2HC1 = ZnC\ -\- 2H. 

Give (a) the symbol, (b) valence, (c) atomic weight, and (d) a method 
of preparation of hydrogen. 

(a) H, (b) 1, (c) 1, (d) see answer to preceding question (Iron 



14 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

filings may be substituted for the zinc, and sulphuric acid for the 
hydrochloric acid). 

What element occurs in all acid compounds? Describe the element. 
Hydrogen. See description given above. 

Find how many grammes of H may be released from HCl by 260 
grammes of Zn. How many grammes of HCl are neces- 
sary? [Atomic weight of Zn — 65, of €1 = 35.5.] 

65 : 2 = 260 : X. Z = 8 grammes of H. 

73 : 2 = Z : 8. Z = 292 grammes of HCL 

WATER 

Give the composition of water (a) by volume, (b) by weight, and (c) 
give its molecular weight. 

(a) Two volumes hydrogen and one volume of oxygen. 

(b) Two parts of hydrogen and sixteen parts of oxygen. 

(c) 18. 

If six volumes of hydrogen and two volumes of oxygen are placed 
together and the electric spark passed through them, will 
the volume be increased or diminished, and to what extent? 

The volume will be diminished from 8 to 2, because four volumes 
of hydrogen would unite with the two of oxygen and form 2 mole- 
cules of water, leaving two volumes of hydrogen free. The volume 
of the water formed is so small that it may be disregarded in the 
calculations. 

Describe one way in which water can be decomposed and two ways in 
which it can be formed. 
Decompose by acidulating slightly with sulphuric acid and pass 
an electric current through it. Water can be formed by passing 
an electric spark through a receptacle containing two volumes of 
hydrogen and one volume of oxygen ; also by burning hydrogen in 
the presence of oxygen, as in the air. 

State the means by which water may be purified. Describe one of 
these ways. 
Filtration, distillation and precipitation. 

Filtration is accomplished by allowing the water to percolate 
through layers of charcoal and sand, or by forcing it through a 
very thick porcelain material with small pores. 

Describe a test to show the presence of each of the following in water : 
(a) chlorides, (b) nitrates, (c) lead. 
(a) Add silver nitrate: a white, curdy precipitate is produced 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 16 

which is soluble in even very dilute ammonia water, but insoluble 
in nitric acid. 

(b) Add a few drops of 1 part of brucine in 300 parts of 5 per 
cent, dilute sulphuric acid, then add some concentrated sulphuric 
acid by pouring carefully down the side of the test tube and a red 
color, changing to yellow, is produced at the line of contact. 

(c) Add hydrogen sulphide or ammonium sulphide to the solu- 
tion and a black precipitate of lead sulphide, which is insoluble in 
dilute acids or alkalies, results. 

Distinguish between hard water and soft water. Under what con- 
ditions and how may hard water be made soft? 
Hardness of water is due to the presence of mineral salts (cal- 
cium, magnesium). Hard water does not readily produce a lather 
with soap. Soft water contains very little or no inorganic matter 
and readily produces a lather with soap. 

By boiling hard water, carbon dioxide escapes, the carbonates of 
the metals are precipitated, and the water is rendered soft. By 
distillation, hard water may be made soft. 

Describe a test to determine the hardness of water. 

For calcium: Pass a small amount of CO2 into the water, 
CaHCOg will be thrown down, but is redissolved in an excess of 
CO2. Upon boiling the clear solution, the excess of CO2 will be 
driven off and CaHCOa will be precipitated. 

For magnesium: The addition of an alkali carbonate solution 
causes a white precipitate of basic magnesium carbonate. 

Hard water does not readily produce a lather with soap, as does 
soft water. 

Describe the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe. 

In this apparatus the oxygen and hydrogen are contained in two 
separate receptacles. They are mixed just at the tip of the burner, 
which consists of two tubes, one within the other. Through the 
inner tube, oxygen is passed, and the outer one is connected with 
the hydrogen reservoir. The hydrogen is first turned on and ignited, 
then the oxygen is admitted. The resultant flame is intensely hot. 

HYDROGEN DIOXIDE 

What is hydrogen dioxide? Write the formula. 

It is a colorless liquid with an odor resembling weak chlorine 
solution, a bitter astringent taste, and is unstable in concentrated 
solutions, being easily decomposed with the liberation of oxygen. 



16 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

It is composed of two parts by weight of hydrogen and thirty-two 
of oxygen. Formula H2O2. 

Write the equation for the preparation of hydrogen dioxide. 
BaOa + H2SO4 + H^O = BaSO, + H^O^ + H^O. 

Mention the important properties and the uses of peroxide of hydrogen. 

It is an active oxidizing agent and is used preeminently as a 
disinfectant, bleaching agent, antisuppurant, and deodorant. 

Give the chemical explanation of the uses of hydrogen peroxide. 

It acts as an oxidizing agent because it is readily decomposed 
into water, HgO, and nascent oxygen, 0. 

OXYGEN 

Describe oxygen as to (a) occurrence, (b) physical properties, (c) 
chemical properties. 

(a) Most abundant of all the elements. Uncombined, but mixed 
with nitrogen, it constitutes one-fifth of the atmosphere ; combined, 
it forms eight-ninths of the material composing water, and nearly 
half the weight of all the rocks. It is a very important constituent 
of animal and vegetable matter. 

(b) A colorless, tasteless, odorless gas, nearly sixteen times 
heavier than hydrogen, and somewhat heavier than air. It may be 
made liquid or even solidified by great cold and pressure. 

(c) It supports combustion, but is non-combustible and is one 
of the most powerful electronegative elements; capable of uniting 
with all elements except fluorine, bromine and the helium group. 

Describe a method of preparing oxygen. Give the symbol, atomic 

weight and specific gravity of oxygen. 

Mix potassium chlorate and manganese dioxide, equal parts, and 

apply heat, carefully ; oxygen will be given off copiously. Symbol, 

O. Atomic weight, 16. Specific gravity, compared with hydrogen, 

is 16, compared with air, 1.1056. 

How much oxygen can be obtained from 50 grammes of potassium 
chlorate? [Atomic weight of potassium = 39, of chlor- 
ine = 35.5, of oxygen = 16.] 
39 + 35.5 -f 48 == 122.5, the molecular weight of KCIO3. The 
molecular weight of 3 atoms of oxygen = 48. 122.5 : 48 = 50 : X. 
X = 19.5 grammes. 

What is oxidation? Give an example. 

Oxidation is the union of oxygen with other elements, the prod- 
ucts formed are oxides. Example : iron and oxygen unite to form 
ferrous oxide. See reduction, p. 5. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 17 

What is combustion? 

Combustion is rapid oxidation and is accompanied by heat and 
light. 

Distinguish between, an oxidizing and a reducing agent and give an 
example of each. 
An oxidizing agent is one which readily parts with its oxygen 
when brought in contact with substances having a greater affinity 
for it. Example : KCIO3. 

A reducing agent is one which has the power to abstract oxygen 
from an oxide. Example : hydrogen. 

What is meant by (a) slow oxidation, (b) rapid oxidation? Give an 
excimple of each. 

(a) A process of oxidation evolving no light. Example: oxida- 
tion of the different organic substances in the living body. 

(b) When the heat generated by oxidation is sufficient to cause 
the emission of light and perhaps a loud report, the process is called 
rapid oxidation, or combustion. Example: gunpowder is a mix- 
ture of sulphur, carbon and potassium, KNO3. Upon heating or ignit- 
ing this mixture, the sulphur and carbon are oxidized, and various 
gases (CO, CO2, N, SO,, etc.) are formed, the sudden generation 
and expansion of which cause the explosion. 

Describe a method of preparing oxygen on a commercial scale. Write 
the equation to express the reaction. 
Heat to redness in an iron vessel manganese dioxide (MnOg), 
causing it to decompose into manganous manganic oxide and oxygen. 
3Mn02 = MugO^ + 20. 

Compare the physical and chemical properties of oxygen with those 
of hydrogen. 
Both gases are colorless, odorless and tasteless. Oxygen is 16 
times heavier than hydrogen. Oxygen supports combustion but is 
non-combustible, whereas hydrogen is combustible but not a sup- 
porter of combustion. 

What is ozone? Describe the preparation of ozone. 

Ozone is an allotropic modification of oxygen. It possesses 
a peculiar odor and is a stronger oxidizing agent than common oxy- 
gen. Its symbol is O3. 

Ozone is prepared by passing non-luminous electric discharges 
through atmospheric air or through oxygen. 



18 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

NITROGEN 

Give (a) the symbol, (b) atomic weight, (c) molecular weight, and 
(d) describe the properties of nitrogen. 

(a) N. (b) 14. (c) 28. (d) Nitrogen is an odorless, colorless, 
tasteless gas, neither combustible nor a supporter of combustion. 
It is distinguished by having very little affinity for any other 
element. Nitrogen is not poisonous, but, being unable to support 
combustion, cannot sustain animal life. In compounds it is unstable. 

What is the function of nitrogen in the air? Describe a process of pre- 
paring nitrogen from the air. 
It serves to dilute the oxygen and has some important function 
in regard to plant life. 

By burning phosphorus in a confined portion of air, the oxygen 
of the air unites with the phosphorus and forms phosphorus pen- 
toxide, P2O5. If the experiment is conducted over water, P2O5 
unites with the water, forming phosphoric acid, leaving nitrogen in 
the container. 

Name a preparation of nitrogen. Mention the properties of nitrogen. 
Ammonia, NH3. Properties described above. 

Describe the usual method of preparing laughing gas. Write the 
equation to show the reaction. 
By heating ammonium nitrate, it breaks down directly into 
water and nitrous oxide. 
NH,N03 = N2O + 2H2O. 

Name the oxides of nitrogen. 

Nitrogen monoxide, NgO ; nitrogen dioxide, N2O2 ; nitrogen triox- 
ide, N2O3 ; nitrogen tetroxide, NgO^ ; nitrogen pentoxide, N2O5. 

Calculate the percentage composition of HNO3. [Atomic weight of 
N = 14.] 
1 + 14 + 48 = 63, the molecular weight of HNO3. 
1 -r- 63 = 0,0158, or 1,58 per cent, hydrogen. 
14 _i_ 63 = 0.222, or 22.2 per cent, nitrogen. 
48 -^ 63 = 0.761, or 76.1 per cent, oxygen. 

Mention two nitrates and give two uses of each. 

Silver nitrate, used in medicine and electro-plating. 
Sodium nitrate, used in fertilizers and. in the preparation of 
saltpetre. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 19 

Describe a method of preparing nitrogen. Compare the properties of 
nitrogen with those of oxygen. 
By passing a current of air over copper, heated to redness, 
copper oxide will be formed and nitrogen isolated. 

Nitrogen and oxygen are both colorless, odorless, tasteless gases. 
Oxygen has a great afiSnity for other elements and supports com- 
bustion; nitrogen unites with very few elements and does not 
support life nor combustion. 

Describe the commercial preparation of nitric acid and write the reac- 
tion. Mention important uses of nitric acid. 
Sodium nitrate is distilled with sulphuric acid. 
2NaN03 + H^SO^ = Na^SO^ + 2HNO3. 

Nitric acid is used in medicine as a caustic and is employed in 
etching copper plates for engraving ; it is also important in the refin- 
ing of precious metals and in the making of nitroglycerine, gun 
cotton, aniline dyes, etc. 

What element constitutes four-fifths of the air? 
Nitrogen. 

AMMONIA 

What is ammonia? Give the source and uses of ammonia. 

Ammonia is a colorless gas, of a peculiar, characteristic and 
very pungent odor. It is neither combustible nor a supporter of 
combustion. By weight it is composed of 13.93 parts of nitrogen 
and 3 parts of hydrogen. It is very soluble in water; caustic and 
readily blisters the skin; strongly alkaline in reaction. Formula, 
NH3. 

Sources: Decomposition of organic matter (meat, urine, blood, 
etc.). Decomposition of ammonium salts by the hydroxides of 
sodium, potassium and calcium, 2(NH4C1)+ Ca(0H)2 = CaClg + 
2H2O -f- 2NH3. Ammonia is obtained, commercially, from gas 
liquor, a by-product of gas plants. 

Uses : It is used in medicine as a cardiac stimulant and general 
stimulant, also to increase secretions. In the household it is used 
as a general cleaning agent in the aqueous form (hartshorn). 

Expl^n why the presence of free ammonia in drinking water is a sign 
of danger. 

Because it is indicative of contamination with decomposing 
organic matter. 

Give the composition and method of preparation of ammonium chloride. 
It is composed of nitrogen, hydrogen and chlorine, NH^Cl. Pre- 



20 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

pared by neutralizing hydrochloric acid with ammonia water. The 
solution is evaporated and the crystalline mass remaining is am- 
monium chloride. HCl + NH.OH = NH^Cl + H^O. 

Give the chemical name and formula of two compounds of ammonia. 
Ammonium chloride, NH^Cl, ammonium nitrate, NH^NOg. 

AIR 

'Name the important constituents of air and give the approximate per- 
centages of each constituent. 

By weight By volume 

Nitrogen 76 77 

Oxygen 23 21 

C02, ammonia, argon, etc 1 2 

State three facts tending to show that air is a mixture and not a 
compound. 

1. By artificially mixing oxygen and nitrogen in the proportions 
found in the air, no energy change (heat) that indicates chemical 
union takes place. 

2. Analysis shows air taken from different heights to be slightly 
variable. 

3. By passing air through water it is changed, oxygen being more 
soluble than nitrogen. 

Mention the injurious substances added to the air in breathing. What 
per cent, of carbon dioxide is fatal to the animal breathing it? 
Carbon dioxide and disease germs are added to the air in 
breathing. 

It is not advisable to allow animals to breathe for any length 
of time air containing more than 1 per cent. CO2 ; 5 per cent, pro- 
duces insensibility, and 8 per cent, causes death in a few minutes. 

What element constitutes four-fifths of the air? 
Nitrogen. 

CARBON 

Give (a) the symbol, (b) specific gravity, (c) the physical and chemical 
properties of carbon. 

(a) C. (b) In its purest form, 3.5; graphite, 2.15; amorphous 
forms, 1.5 to 2. (c) One of the most common elements, tasteless, 
odorless, non- volatile, infusible and insoluble in all its forms; 
black in color, except in the form of the diamond, and is combustible, 
yielding CO2. It unites readily with a great many elements, forming 
important compounds. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 21 

Discuss the use of carbon as a reducing agent. 

Carbon is a very active reducing agent, because of its great 
affinity for oxygen. By heating carbon in the presence of any 
oxide, the latter is rapidly reduced, its oxygen forming CO or 
COo with carbon. 

Mention and describe three allotropic forms of carbon. 

1. Diamond is the purest form of carbon, and is the hardest sub- 
stance known. It occurs in crystals, octahedral in shape. It is a 
very brilliant gem, owing to its great refractive power. 

2. Graphite, also known as plumbago, or black lead, is a black, 
greasy substance with a specific gravity of 2.15. It is a good con- 
ductor of heat and electricity. Used as a lubricant for machinery, 
and in the manufacture of lead pencils, stove polish, crucibles, etc. 

3. Amorphous carbon is always a black solid, but the different 
kinds vary in hardness and specific gravity. It is seen as the prin- 
cipal part of the various kinds of coal; in the form of lamp-black 
it is used in printer 's ink ; and occurs in bone-black, which serves as 
a decolorizing agent in the making of sugar, syrups and other liquids. 

Describe how each of the following may be prepared : (a) lamp-black, 
(b) bone-black. Mention the important uses of each. 

(a) Lamp-black is made by burning tar, rosin, turpentine or 
petroleum, with a deficient supply of air, and passing the smoke 
into large chambers where the carbon is deposited. It is used in 
making printer's ink. 

(b) Bone-black is made by carbonization of bones of animals 
and is used as a decolorizing agent. 

Give the important physical and chemical properties of carbon dioxide. 

Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas which by cold and 
pressure may be easily condensed to a liquid. Its specific gravity is 
1.529, and its sjrmbol, CO2, being composed of one volume of carbon 
and two of oxygen. It is not combustible and is not a good sup- 
porter of combustion, in fact it has a decided tendency to extinguish 
flames. It unites with water to form carbonic acid, HgCOg. 

Describe the method of preparing carbon dioxide from marble and 
write the equation. 
By heating marble (CaCOg) or by adding hydrochloric acid, 
carbon dioxide is liberated. 

CaCOg + heat = CaO -f CO.. 

CaCo3 + 2HC1 = CaCl^ + H^O + COg. 



22 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Describe a simple test for carbon dioxide and write the reaction. 

Pass the gas through, lime water and the solution becomes 
turbid. 

Ca(0H)2 + CO2 = CaCOa + H^O. 

Compare as to weight, carbon dioxide with air. 

Carbon dioxide is one and one-half times heavier than air. 

Describe the manufacture of some carbide and mention its common use. 
Calcium carbide (CaCg) is manufactured on a commercial scale 
by heating, in an electric furnace, a mixture of lime and coal, or 
coal tar (CaO + 3C = CaCg + CO). It is used for generating 
acetylene gas, which is formed by the action of calcium carbide and 
water (CaC^ + H^O = C^H^ + CaO). 

What is marsh gas? Give its formula and chemical importance with 
a method of preparation. 
Marsh gas (CH4) is a colorless gas which burns readily with a 
bluish-yellow flame, emitting much heat but little light. In nature 
it is produced by the decay of dead leaves in the bottom of stagnant 
pools. It also accumulates in coal mines as the dreaded ' ' fire damp ' ' 
and mixing with the oxygen of the air forms deadly explosions. In 
impure form it is obtained from wells in some localities and is used 
for lighting and heating. It can be prepared by mixing aluminum 
carbide and water [Al.Cg -f I2H2O = SCH^ + 4A1(0H)3]. 

Find the weight of each of the products formed by the complete com- 
bustion of 20 grammes of marsh gas (CH^). [Atomic 
weight of C = 12, of O == 16.] 

CH4 + 2O2 = CO, + 2H2O. 

16 : 44 = 29 iX,X = 55 grammes of COg. 

16 : 36 =- 20 : X, X = 45 grammes of H^O. 

Describe the manufacture of illuminating gas. 

Bituminous or cannel coal is heated in clay or brick retorts and 
the products of distillation pass out into a series of pipes in which 
water, coal-tar, ammonia, etc., are deposited. The gas still con- 
tains impurities, which are removed by passing it over some absorb- 
ent substance, such as slaked lime. 

Describe the construction and operation of the Bunsen burner. 

In a gas flame, if the air is excluded, soot and smoke will form 
copiously. But if the combustion is rendered more perfect, no car- 
bon is deposited and the flame becomes hotter, but less brilliant. In 
the Bunsen burner, this is arranged for by allowing air to enter at 
the bottom of the burner and become thoroughly mixed with the 
gas before the latter is ignited. If the openings through which 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 23 

the air enters are stopped up, the flame becomes more luminous and 
less hot. 
Give proof of the fact that a diamond is composed of carbon. 

A diamond, when heated intensely in the presence of oxygen, 
burns and forms carbon dioxide. 

SULPHUR 

Mention the properties and important uses of sulphur. 

Sulphur is ordinarily a yellow, brittle solid, without taste or 
odor. It dissolves in carbon disulphide, but not in water, and 
combines easily with most of the other elements. Allotropic forms : 
prismatic or monoclinic, rhombic octahedra, and plastic. Uses: 
Used in the manufacture of gunpowder, matches, sulphuric acid, 
bleaching agents, in medicine, etc. 

Discuss the behavior of sulphur at different temperatures. 

At 115° C. it melts to a clear, amber-colored liquid which be- 
comes viscid as the temperature rises to 230° C. Above 250° C. it 
becomes fluid again and if poured into cold water it becomes plastic 
or ductile, but after standing a few days it returns to its primary 
condition, original sulphur. 

Describe the use of sulphur in disinfecting. Explain its efficiency. 

Remove animals from premises. All openings to outside air 
should be closed. Three pounds of flowers of sulphur, mixed with 
two ounces of alcohol and ignited, should be employed for every 
1000 cubic feet of air space to be disinfected. Keep premises 
closed for six hours. Steam introduced into the apartment together 
with the sulphur fumes is more efficient, the water unites with the 
' sulphurous anhydride to make the more potent sulphurous acid 
(HgSOs). Sulphur fumigation is of little worth to destroy disease 
germs. Formaldehyde or chlorine gas is to be preferred. 

Write the formula of hydrogen sulphide. Describe its properties. 

H2S. A colorless gas with the peculiar odor of rotten eggs 
and a disgusting taste. It is soluble in water and highly combustible 
in the air, burning with a blue flame and forming sulphur dioxide 
and water. This gas is poisonous when inhaled. 

Describe a method of preparing hydrogen sulphide. 

Prepared by the action of dilute sulphuric acid upon iron 
sulphide. (FeS + H^SO, = FeSO^ + H^S.) 

Describe a process of preparing sulphuric acid on a commercial scale. 
Mention the important uses of sulphuric acid. 
. *'Lead chamber process.'' Sulphur dioxide, generated by the 



24 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

combustion of sulphur or by roasting iron pyrites in a suitable 
furnace, is passed into a large chamber, or series of chambers, lined 
with sheet lead. Nitrous fumes, produced by heating sodium nitrate 
with a little sulphuric acid, enter the chamber at the same time; 
jets of steam are blown in at several points and a draft of air is 
kept up throughout. The sulphur dioxide meeting the nitrous fumes 
is oxidized by them and with the water of the steam forms sulphuric 
acid. 

Uses: Very extensively used in the arts, in the manufacture of 
all the other strong acids, and fertilizers; refining sugar, fats and 
oils; in galvanic batteries, etc. 

Write the graphic forniula and calculate the percentage composition 
of sulphuric acid. [Atomic weight of S =: 32.] 

H-0\g^O 

H-o/ ^0 

2 + 32 + 64 = 98, the molecular weight of sulphuric acid. 

2/98 or 2.04 per cent, hydrogen. 

32/98 or 32.65 per cent, sulphur. 

64/98 or 65.30 per cent, oxygen. 

What is copper sulphate? How prepared? 

Copper sulphate, blue vitriol, or Mue stone, is the most im- 
portant compound of copper. It is formed in large, transparent, 
deep-blue crystals which are easily soluble in water and have a 
nauseous, metallic taste. Formula, CuSO^. 

It is prepared by dissolving cupric oxide in sulphuric acid, 
evaporating and crystallizing the solution. 

DISINFECTANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 

Differentiate between disinfectants and antiseptics. 

Disinfectants are agents that destroy the microorganisms which 
cause infectious and contagious diseases, fermentation and putre- 
faction. 

Antiseptics are agents which prevent the growth and develop- 
ment of the microorganisms occasioning fermentation but more 
especially the pus-producing variety. 

What is a deodorant? 

Deodorants are agents which destroy or counteract a foul odor, 
e.g., phenol, zinc chloride and charcoal. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 25 

Describe an efficient method of disinfecting by the use of formaldehyde. 

For every 1000 cubic feet of air space, mix in a deep vessel 16% 
ounces of potassium permanganate with 20 ounces of formalin 
(a 40 per cent, aqueous solution of formaldehyde). Close all open- 
ings and leave this mixture in the room for 3 hours before opening. 

PHOSPHORUS 

Give a description of phosphorus as to (a) occurrence, (b) physical 
properties, (c) source. 

(a) Never found free in nature, but as phosphates is an im- 
portant constituent of plants, animals and the earth's crust. 

(b) Phosphorus exists in several allotropic varieties, the more 
important of which are the yellow and red. The yellow variety is a 
yellowish-white, waxy solid of specific gravity 1.837. It melts at 
44.2° C. and boils at 263° C. ; is highly inflammable and oxidizes 
readily in the air at ordinary temperature. It has a faint odor, 
resembling garlic, is very poisonous, is soluble in carbon disul- 
phide and insoluble in water. The red variety is not easily inflam- 
mable in air, has a density of 2.2, is insoluble in carbon disulphide 
and is not poisonous. 

(c) Prepared from bone-ash or from sombrerite, an impure cal- 
cium phosphate found in the West Indian guano. 

Mention the principal uses of phosphorus. 

Used in matches, vermin poison, medicine and fertilizers. 

Give (a) the symbol, (b) the valence, (c) atomic weight, (d) molecular 
weight, of phosphorus. 

(a) P, (b) 3 and 5, (c) 31, (d) 124. 

Name the allotropic forms of phosphorus. 
Yellow, red, white and black. 

HALOGENS 

Name the elements of the halogen group and write the symbol of each. 
Fluorine, F ; chlorine, CI ; bromine, Br ; iodine, I. 

Give the physical and chemical properties of iodine. Describe a test 
for iodine. 
Iodine is a bluish-black crystalline substance, with a metallic 
luster and an odor faintly resembling that of chlorine. Its specific 
gravity is 4.95 and its atomic weight is 125.89. Its vapor has a violet 
color. Iodine is almost insoluble in water but forms several im- 
portant compounds with other elements. 



26 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Test: Add a solution of starch paste, when an intensely blue 
color is produced. 

Give the source and the preparation of iodine. 

Iodine was previously obtained from the ashes of sea- weeds which 
are treated with water and the solution thus obtained is heated with 
manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid. Iodine is set free by dis- 
tillation. 

At present, it is obtained from NalOg, a by-product in the manu- 
facture of Chili saltpetre. 

Mention the important uses of iodine. 

Used in medicine, photography and in the preparation of aniline 
dyes. 

Give the method of making potassium iodide. Write the equation 
involved. 

Add iodine crystals to an aqueous solution of caustic potash 
until saturated, then evaporate to dryness ; the residue, which con- 
sists of potassium iodide and iodate, is then strongly heated to 
decompose the iodate, thus forming iodide with the liberation of 
oxygen. Dissolve the mass in water and evaporate, when crystals 
of potassium iodide will be left. 

6K0H -f 3I2 = 5KI + KIO3 + 3H2O. 

2KIO3 + heat = 2KI + 30^. 

What are the phyical and chemical properties of chlorine. Mention the 
uses and important compounds of chlorine. 

Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas, two and one-half times heavier 
than air, and having a highly irritating odor ; soluble in water and 
convertible into a liquid by cold and pressure. It has a strong 
affinity for other elements and forms a number of important com- 
pounds. Its atomic weight is 35.18. 

Uses : Strong disinfecting, deodorizing and bleaching agent and 
its compounds are valuable medicinal agents. 

Among its important compounds are: sodium chloride, hydro- 
chloric acid, chloral hydrate, calcium chloride, etc. 

Describe a method of preparing chlorine and write the reaction. 

Mix manganese dioxide with hydrochloric acid in a large flask 
provided with a delivery tube and heat gently ; chlorine gas will be 
evolved. 

MnO^ -f 4HC1 = MnCl^ + Cl^ + 2H2O. 

Describe the preparation of hydrochloric acid. 

It is prepared by the action of sulphuric acid on sodium chloride 
in the presence of heat. 

2NaCl + H2SO, = Na^SO^ -f 2HC1. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 27 

Mention a compound of each of the halogens. 

Sodium chloride, potassium iodide, sodium bromide and hydro- 
fluoric acid. 

Describe the properties of bromine and give a method for its prepara- 
tion. 

At ordinary temperature, bromine is a heavy, dark, reddish- 
brown liquid, giving off yellowish-red fumes of an exceedingly 
suffocating and irritating odor ; it is very volatile and has a specific 
gravity of 2.99. It is soluble in water, is a strong disinfecting and 
bleaching agent and acts as a corrosive poison. 

Bromine is prepared by treating magnesium bromide with 
chlorine. 

MgBr^ + 201= MgCl^ + 2Br. 

Give the properties and uses in medicine of bromine. 

Properties given above. Sodium and potassium bromide are 
used in medicine as antispasmodics, narcotics and nerve sedatives. 

GOLD 

Give a test for gold and gold compounds. 

Most reducing agents, as oxalic acid, ferrous sulphate, etc., 
precipitate gold from its solutions as a dark-brown powder. 

SILVER 

Describe silver, giving names of its most important compounds used in 
medicine. 

Silver is a pure, white brilliant metal, a good conductor of heat 
and electricity, and is malleable and ductile. It is univalent and 
forms but one series of salts. It is not affected by the oxygen of the 
air, but is readily affected by traces of hydrogen sulphide, which 
forms a black film of sulphide upon the surface. Its atomic weight 
is 107, its specific gravity is 10.5 and its symbol is Ag. Compounds 
used in medicine are : silver nitrate, protargol, argyrol, coUargol. 

What is lunar caustic? How is lunar caustic prepared and what is 

its medicinal use? 

Lunar caustic is nitrate of silver, fused into round sticks, or 

pencils. It is prepared by adding 4 per cent, hydrochloric acid to 

silver nitrate, fusing and pouring into suitable moulds. It is used 

for cauterizing inflamed surfaces, warts, etc. 

Give a chemical test for silver. 

Add to a solution of silver a solution of hydrogen sulphide 
or ammonium sulphide, and a dark-brown precipitate of silver sul- 
phide will be produced. 



28 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

LEAD 

Give (a) the symbol, (b) atomic weight, (c) valence, and (d) the physi- 
cal properties of lead. 

(a) Pb. (b) 205. (c) 2 and 4. (d) Lead is a soft, bluish- 
white metal; specific gravity, 11.38. "When freshly cut, it has a 
bright metallic luster, but quickly tarnishes on the surface and 
becomes dull. It is malleable and ductile. 

What is sugar of lead? Give its pharmaceutical name. 

Sugar of lead is a salt formed by the action of acetic acid on 
lead oxide. It forms colorless, shining, transparent crystals, easily 
soluble in water, and has a sweetish, astringent, afterwards metallic 
taste. Formula, (C2H302)2Pb. 

Pharmaceutical name is plumbi acetate. 

MERCUEY 

Describe mercury as to physical and chemical properties and occur- 
rence in nature. 

Mercury is the only metal which is liquid at ordinary tempera- 
ture ; it is almost silver- white and has a bright metallic lustre ; specific 
gravity, 13.56. Pure mercury does not tarnish in the air until heated 
above 300° C, when it unites with the oxygen to form the red oxide. 
It combines directly with chlorine, bromine, iodine and sulphur and 
dissolves in nitric acid and hot sulphuric acid. Its atomic weight 
is 198.5. 

Mercury occurs in nature in a free state, but generally as mer- 
curic sulphide (cinnabar), a dark-red mineral. 

Name the compounds of mercury used in medicine. 

Mercuric oxide, mercuric and mercurous chloride, mercuric 
iodide, massa hydrargyri, unguentum hydrargyri, hydrargyri cum 
creta. 

Write the formula of each of the following: (a) mercurous chloride, 
(b) mercuric chloride. Mention the common name and im- 
portant properties of each. 

(a) HggCla, calomel, is a cholagogue cathartic, intestinal anti- 
septic and diuretic. The formula is commonly written, KgCl. 

(b) HgClg, corrosive sublimate, is a violent poison, antiseptic, 
and alterative. 

Write the chemical equation representing the preparation of calomel. 
HgSO^ + Hg + 2NaCl = Na^SO, -f 2HgCl. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 29 

METALS OF THE ALKALIES 

Name three important elements of the alkali group of metals. 
Potassium, sodium, lithium. 

Name three important potassium salts. Give in regard to each salt 
named: (a) its formula, (b) its principal uses in medicine. 
Potassium chlorate, KCIO3, antiseptic, refrigerant, sialogogue, 
and diuretic. 

Potassium nitrate, KNO3, diuretic and antipyretic. 
Potassium bicarbonate, KHCO3, antacid and sedative in gastric 
disorders. 

Name five sodium salts used in medicine and write the chemical formula 
of each. 
Sodium bicarbonate, NaHC03 ; sodium chloride, NaCl ; sodium 
sulphate, NaoSO^jlOHsO ; sodium phosphate, Na2HP04,12H20 ; 
sodium carbonate, Na2CO3,10H2O. 

Describe the chemical action of liquid caustics on the tissues of the 

body. 

The liquid caustics (sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide) 

have a great affinity for water and in abstracting same from the 

tissues, a great amount of heat is produced, which coagulates the 

albumin. 

Mention the metals of the sodium group and describe the process of 
manufacturing sodium carbonate. 

Potassium, sodium, lithium, rubidium and cassium. 

The Solvay process^ for manufacturing sodium carbonate depends 
upon the fact that when carbon dioxide is passed into a solution of 
common salt, in aqueous ammonia, sodium bicarbonate is formed, 
thus: 

NH3 + CO2 + NaCl + H2O = NaHCOg + NH.Cl. 

The bicarbonate of soda (NallCOg), being slightly soluble, is 
deposited in large quantities and is converted into ordinary car- 
bonate by heating. 

CALCIUM GROUP 

Name the elements of the calcium group and give their general charac- 
teristics. 
Magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and radium. They are 
alkaline in character and form oxides and salts whose properties 
somewhat resemble the metals of the alkalies. They are white in 
color and fusible only above a red heat; all oxidize readily in the 
air; all are malleable and ductile. 



30 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Describe the process of preparing lime water from lime stone. Write 
the reactions. 

By heating lime stone, CO2 is driven off and calcium oxide 
obtained. One part of calcium oxide is slaked and agitated occasion- 
ally during half an hour with 30 parts of water. The mixture is 
then allowed to settle and the liquid, containing, besides calcium 
hydroxide, the salts of the alkali metals which may have been pres- 
ent in the lime, is decanted and thrown away. To the calcium 
hydroxide left, and thus purified, 300 parts of water are added 
and occasionally shaken in a well-stoppered bottle, from which the 
clear liquid may be poured off for use. 

CaC03 + heat = CaO -f CO^, etc. 

CaO-f H20 = Ca(0H)2. 

Ca (OH) 2 + 3OOH2O = lime water. 

Describe with explanation the manufacture of plaster of Paris. 

Plaster of Paris is made by heating native calcium sulphate 
(gypsum) and depriving it of part of its water. 

2(CaS04,2H20)-|-heat = 2CaS04.H20 (plaster of Paris) and 
3H2O. 

What is gypsum? 

It is native calcium sulphate, CaS04,2H20, and occurs abund- 
antly in nature in white translucent masses. 

Describe magnesium. Name its principal compounds used in medicine 
and write the chemical formula of each compound named. 

Magnesium is a brilliant, almost silver-white alkaline metal with 
a specific gravity of 1.74. It is tenacious and ductile; dissolves 
readily in dilute acids, forming salts. It is eeisily combustible and 
burns with an intensely brilliant light, and is used in photography 
for flashlight purposes. 

Compounds used in medicine : oxide, MgO, known as magnesia ; 
carbonate, MgCOg; sulphate (Epsom salts), MgS04,7H20. 

Describe the method of preparing Epom salts. Write the formula of 

Epsom salts. 

Prepared by treating magnesium carbonate with sulphuric acid 

and evaporating the solution to the crystallizing point. MgCOg + 

H2SO4 = MgSO^ + HoO + CO.. Formula of Epsom salts, MgSO^,- 

7H2O. 

Name and give the formula of a compound of barivun used in medicine. 
Barium chloride, BaCL. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 31 

ZINC 

Name three preparations of zinc that are used in medicine and write 
the chemical formula of each. 
Zinc sulphate, ZnSO^; zinc chloride, ZnClg; zinc oxide, ZnO. 

Describe a method of preparing zinc sulphate. 
Dissolve zinc in dilute sulphuric acid. 
H2SO4 + Zn = ZnSO, + 2H. 

How can Epsom salts be distinguished from zinc sulphate? 

By testing with potassium ferrocyanide. Zinc ferrocyanide will 
be thrown down as a white precipitate. No precipitate is formed 
with magnesium. 

BORON 

Give the names of the principal compounds and the chemical impor- 
tance in medicine of boron. 
Boric acid, H3BO3. 

Sodium borate, Na2B4O7,10H2O (borax). 

Boric acid and borax are mild, harmless, non-irritating anti- 
septics and are very serviceable in surgery. 

ALUMINUM 

Give the properties of aluminum and mention its important salts. 

Aluminum, is a bluish-white, brilliant metal; malleable and 
ductile ; specific gravity, 2.583. It is an excellent conductor of heat 
and electricity. It oxidizes superficially in the air and has the 
valuable properties of strength and lightness combined. 

Aluminum sulphate is its most important salt. This combines 
with the sulphates of the alkaline metals to form a class of double 
salts, known as alums. Potassium alum is the commonest example. 

BISMUTH 

Give (a) the symbol, (b) atomic weight, (c) occurrence in nature, and 
(d) the compounds used in medicine of bismuth. 

(a) Bi. (b) 206.5. (c) Rare, occurs as an oxide and sulphide, 
(d) Bismuth subnitrate, subgallate, subcarbonate, subsalicylate and 
citrate. 

IRON 

How does iron occur in nature? 

Iron is found in small quantities in nearly all forms of rocks, 
clay, sand and earth, and in plants and blood. Rarely found free 



32 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

in nature except in meteoric masses, but is very abundant in certain 
oreS; viz., magnetite, hematite and siderite. 

Give the physical and chemical difference between cast iron and 

wrought iron. 

Cast iron is brittle and cannot be welded or forged. It contains 

two, three or more per cent, of carbon. Wrought iron fuses with 

difficulty and is tough, fibrous and can be welded. It contains 

1.6 per cent, or less of carbon. 

Describe briefly the Bessemer process. 

The Bessemer process of making steel from cast iron, which 
is accomplished by removing the carbon from the latter, is as follows : 
melted pig iron (cast iron) is poured into an egg-shaped vessel, 
called a ' ' converter, ' ' through which a powerful blast of air can be 
blown. The converter is made of the strongest wrought iron and is 
lined with an infusible layer of fire clay. As the air bubbles through 
the molten iron, being forced in from below, the temperature rises 
and silicon and carbon are burned away. Spiegeleisen is added to 
supply the proper amount of carbon for good steel. The molten 
mass is then poured into moulds. 

Mention three important ores of iron. 

Magnetic oxide, FcsO^; hematite, FcgOs; ^^d siderite, FeCOs. 

Give the common name, the chemical name and the chemical formula of 
three compounds of iron. 

1. Copperas, or green vitriol, ferrous sulphate, FeSO^. 

2. Chloride of iron, ferric chloride, Fe2Cl6. 

3. Carbonate of iron, ferrous carbonate, FeCO^. 

Give the chemical equation showing the preparation of ferrous sulphate. 
Give the common names of ferrous sulphate and state its 
uses in medicine. 
Fe2 + 2H2SO4 = 2FeS04 + ^H^. Fe2S04,7H20, copperas, green 
vitriol or ferrous sulphate, is used in medicine as a hematinic, astrin- 
gent, vermicide and disinfectant. 

What is reduced iron and how is it made? 

It is a very fine, grayish-black, lusterless powder, without odor 
or taste ; permanent in dry air, insoluble in water or alcohol. 

Made by passing hydrogen gas over freshly made, and carefully 
. washed, ferric oxide, in a hot and closed tube. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 33 

ARSENIC 

Give the properties of arsenic and name some of the compounds of 
arsenic used in medicine. 
Arsenic is an odorless, tasteless, steel-black non-metal with a 
metallic appearance. It is very brittle and volatilizes unchanged 
and without melting when heated to 180° C. without access of air. 
In the air it burns with a bluish- white light and gives forth an odor 
which resembles that of garlic; insoluble in water; occurs as an 
opaque powder or in irregular masses. 

Compounds of arsenic used in medicine: Fowler's solution, 
arsenious acid, arsenious iodide and sodium arsenate. 

Write the chemical formula of white arsenic. State the occurrence of 
arsenic in nature. 
White arsenic, or arsenious acid, AsgO^. 

Arsenic sometimes occurs in nature in the native state, but 
generally as a sulphide or oxide. 

Describe the making of one preparation of arsenic that is used in 
medicine. 
Fowler's solution ^ liquor potassii arsenitis. Dissolve one part 
arsenious oxide and two parts of potassium bicarbonate in ten parts 
of distilled water by boiling. Add enough distilled water to make 
ninety-seven parts and then add three parts of compound tincture 
of lavender. Filter through paper. 

Give Marsh's test for arsenic. What other element gives a similar 
reaction? How may these two be distinguished? 

Make a hydrogen generator with a flask containing zinc and 
hydrochloric acid. Ignite the hydrogen escaping through the tube. 
Pour into the generating flask a few drops of any compound of 
arsenic. Hold a piece of cold porcelain against the flame, and a 
black, mirror-like stain of metallic arsenic will be deposited upon it. 

Antimony compounds give a similar reaction. The arsenic stain 
is soluble in a solution of sodium hypochlorite, whereas, the anti- 
mony stain is not. 

Mention a common substance containing arsenic. 

Paris green. Arsenic is also found in lead shot, it being used to 
harden the same. 

How should the contents of the stomach be examined for the presence 
of arsenic? 
Examine under the microscope for solid arsenious oxide. Then 
apply Marsh's test given above. 
3 



34 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

ANTIMONY 

Name the preparation of antimony used in medicine. 

Antimonyl-potassium tartrate, commonly called tartar emetic. 

Organic Chemistry 

What is organic chemistry? 

Organic chemistry is the chemistry of the carbon compounds or 
the chemistry of the hydrocarbons and their derivatives. 

Differentiate between hydrocarbons and carbohydrates. 

Hydrocarbons are compounds of hydrogen and carbon, as 
methane, CH^. 

Carbohydrates are compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen 
and oxygen, the two latter elements being present in the same 
relative atomic proportion as in water, e.g., grape sugar, CeHigOg. 

Name four elements that enter into the formation of most organic 
bodies. 
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. 

Give the difference between essential oils and fixed oils. 

Essential oils are derived from plants and belong to the class 
of compounds known as terpenes. They generally bear the em- 
pirical formula CioHg and are volatile liquids. They do not form 
glycerine when treated with an alkali. 

Fixed oils are the true fats and are composed of the glyceryl 
radical combined with a fat acid radical. They form soap when 
treated with an alkali. 

How does gallic acid differ from tannic acid? What are the tests for 
differentiating the same? 
Gallic acid does not coagulate albumin^ nor precipitate alkaloids, 
gelatin or starch; whereas, tannic acid does. 

To a dilute solution (1-100) of tannic acid add a small quantity 
of lime water. A pale, bluish-white, flocculent precipitate is formed, 
which is not dissolved on shaking (difference from gallic acid), but 
becomes more copious and of a deeper blue than pinkish by the addi- 
tion of an excess of lime water. 

fermentation and putrefaction 

Why are organic substances liable to decay? 

Because they are composed of combustible elements (carbon 
and hydrogen) which readily oxidize, forming carbon dioxide and 
water. Organic substances offer the proper environment for the 
incubation of bacteria. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 35 

Name the principal salts of acetic acid and state which of the salts 
named are used in veterinary medicine. 
The acetates of potassium, lead, ammonium, sodium, zinc and 
copper. The first five named are used in veterinary medicine. 

What is vinegar? How made? 

Vinegar is dilute acetic acid (about 6 per cent.). It is made by 
the oxidation of fermented juices (wine, cider). This oxidation is 
greatly facilitated by the enzyme ''Mycodermse aceti.'' Vinegar is 
also made artificially by adding coloring and odoriferous substances 
to dilute acetic acid. 

ALCOHOLS 

State briefly the method of preparation of alcohol. Give the properties 
and the principal uses of alcohol. 

Ethyl alcohol is prepared by the fermentation of grape sugar 
(glucose) . To a solution of grape sugar, a certain yeast (ferment) is 
added which causes the decomposition of the sugar, yielding carbon 
dioxide and ethyl alcohol. Alcohol boils at a much lower tempera- 
ture than water and therefore it can be readily separated by dis- 
tillation. 

CeH.^Oe = 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH (ethyl alcohol) . 

Methyl alcohol (CH3OH) is obtained by the distillation of wood. 

Pure ethyl alcohol is a transparent, colorless, volatile liquid, of 
a characteristic, rather agreeable odor, and a burning taste. It is 
very soluble in water, for which it has a great affinity. It is used in 
medicine in the preparation of tinctures, extracts and fluidextracts, 
and widely used in the arts. 

What is the difference between an alcohol and an aldehyde? 

An aldehyde is derived from an alcohol by dehydrating the 
latter, hence it contains less hydrogen than an alcohol. Aldehydes 
are unstable (except formaldehyde), very volatile liquids having 
a peculiar odor, e.g., liquor formaldehydi. 

Give the formula for (a) ethyl alcohol, (b) methyl alcohol. Which is 
used for internal purposes? 

(a) C2H5OH, used internally. 

(b) CH3OH, 

What is absolute alcohol? 

Alcohol containing not more than one per cent, of water. 

Compare wine and brandy in respect to composition. 

Wine, according to the variety, contains from 6 to 22 per cent, 
alcohol. Brandy contains from 40 to 50 per cent, of alcohol. 



36 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

CHLOROFORM 

How is chloroform prepared ? Write the formula of chloroform. 

Chloroform is prepared by the action of chlorinated lime on 
alcohol, or the purest from chloral. Formula, CHCI3. 

Give the properties of chloroform. 

Chloroform is a heavy, colorless liquid of a characteristic ethereal 
odor, a burning, sweet taste, and a neutral reaction ; it is but spar- 
ingly soluble in water, but miscible with alcohol and ether in all 
proportions. It evaporates rapidly at all temperatures. Specific 
gravity, about 1.48. 

IODOFORM 

State the derivation of iodoform. 

Iodoform is a derivative of methane, OH^, in which three atoms 
of hydrogen have been replaced by three atoms of iodine. It is 
made by heating together an aqueous solution of an alkali car- 
bonate, iodine and alcohol, until the brown color of iodine has disap- 
peared ; on cooling, iodoform is deposited in yellow scales, which are 
washed and dried between filter paper. 

Give the chemical formula and uses of iodoform. 

CHI3. It is used in surgery as an antiseptic for wound dress- 
ings, also for its slight local anaesthetic effect. 

CHLORAL 

Describe chloral. 

Chloral is a colorless, oily liquid, with a penetrating odor and 
an acrid taste; soluble in water; specific gravity, 1.5. Formula, 
C2HCI3O. 

How is chloral hydrate made? Mention its principal uses in medicine. 
Chloral hydrate is made by adding chloral to water, forming 
crystals. It is used in medicine for its hypnotic effect. 

What is the difference between chloral hydrate and chloroform? 

Chloral hydrate, C2HCI3O. 

Chloroform, CHCI3. 

Chloral hydrate is freely soluble in water; chloroform is only 
sparingly so. Chloral hydrate is a crystalline mass and volatilizes 
slowly at ordinary temperatures, whereas chloroform is a liquid 
and volatizes rapidly at all temperatures. 



QUESTIONS AiND ANSWERS 37 

PHENOLS 

Give the composition and the properties of phenol. 

Pure phenol, CgHgOH, occurs in colorless crystals which are 
deliquescent and soluble in fixed oils, glycerine and water. It has 
a characteristic, aromatic odor ; when diluted, it has a sweetish and 
afterward burning, caustic taste and produces a benumbing and 
caustic effect and even blisters on the skin. It is strongly poisonous 
and a powerful disinfectant. 

What is phenol ? For what is it used and from what is it obtained ? 

See answer to preceding question. 

Phenol is used in surgery for its germicidal, antiseptic and slight 
anaesthetic effects. Used as a disinfectant and deodorant in cess- 
pools, stables, etc. It is obtained by fractional distillation of crude 
carbolic acid which is obtained during the distillation of coal-tar. 

What is salol ? Give its properties and uses. 

Salol, a compound of salicylic acid and phenol, is a white, crystal- 
line, almost tasteless powder, with a faintly aromatic odor; nearly 
insoluble in water, but readily soluble in alcohol and ether. It is 
made by the action of suitable dehydrating agents upon a mixture 
of phenol and salicylic acid. It is used as an antirheumatic, anti- 
pyretic and intestinal antiseptic. 



PETROLEUM 

What is petroleum? Name the important derivatives of petroleum 
used in medicine. 
Petroleum is a product of the decomposition of organic matter, 
mostly of the fats and oils of fish and other aquatic animals. It is 
a mixture of the various liquid and solid paraffins, often containing 
in solution the gaseous and solid members of this group and also 
small quantities of coloring and other matters. 

Derivatives used in medicine: petrolatum (cosmoline, vaseline) 
and liquid petrolatum. 

Mention the source and important properties of vaseline. 

Vaseline is obtained from petroleum by distilling off the lighter 
and more volatile portion and purifying the residue. It is a fat- 
like mass, varying in color from yellow^ish-white to light amber, 
slightly fluorescent, odorless and tasteless; when heated it gives 



38 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

off a faint odor of petroleum. Used principally as a base for 
ointments. 

What is glycerine? How is glycerine prepared? Give its chemical 
formula. 
Glycerine, a trihydroxyl alcohol, is a colorless, syrupy liquid, 
with a specific gravity of 1.28. It is prepared by the action of super- 
heated steam and an alkali upon fats, causing a splitting of the 
fats into fatty acids and glycerine. Formula, €3115(011)3. 

Mention the sources from which each of the following is obtained: 
(a) acetic acid, (b) lactic acid, (c) tartaric acid. 

(a) From the destructive distillation of wood and the fermen- 
tation of alcohol. 

(b) From lactic fermentation of sugar; certain bacteria in milk 
produce the enzyme. 

(c) Obtained from the deposit occurring in the fermentation of 
wine. 

ALKALOIDS 

What is an alkaloid? State the properties of a vegetable alkaloid. 
Mention three alkaloids. 

An alkaloid is an alkaline or basic principle of vegetable or ani- 
mal origin. Alkaloids combine with acids to form salts. Vegetable 
alkaloids show the characteristic physiologic properties of the sub- 
stance from which they are derived. They are usually crystalline, 
white, with a bitter taste, and odorless, except those which are vola- 
tile. They are insoluble in alkalies, sparingly soluble in water, but 
readily soluble in alcohol, ether and chloroform. They are all more 
or less toxic. 

Strychnia, from nux vomica; morphia, from opium; atropia, 
from belladonna. 

Mention a chemical antidote for alkaloids and explain why it acts as an 
antidote. 
Tannin forms an insoluble tannate with nearly all alkaloids. 

TOXICOLOGY 

What is a poison? 

A poison is any substance applied to the body, ingested, or 
developed within the body, which causes or may cause disease. 

Give a classification of poisons and an example of each class named. 

1. Irritant poisons, as caustic potash, phenol and caustic acids. 

2. Neurotic poisons, as opium, belladonna and strychnine. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 39 

Define ptomaines and state how they are produced. 

Ptomaines are the alkaloidal or basic products of tjie putrefac- 
tion of animal or vegetable matter. They are produced by the action 
of bacteria on nitrogenous matter. 

Distinguish between physiological, chemical and mechanical antidotes 
and give an example of each. 

A physiological antidote does not act directly upon the poison 
but produces physiological effects opposite to that of the poison. 
Example : strychnine as an antidote to opium poisoning. 

A chemical antidote is one which changes the chemical nature of 
the poison, rendering it inert. Example : sulphates in lead poison- 
ing form insoluble lead sulphate. 

A mechanical antidote is one that prevents the absorption of the 
poison. Example : stomach pump, mucilaginous drinks. 

Name three metallic poisons and mention an antidote for each. 
Lead : antidote, magnesium sulphate. 
Mercury: antidote, albumin. 
Copper: antidote, potassium ferrocyanide. 

Name the antidotes that should be prescribed in case of poisoning by 
(a) caustic alkalies, (b) mineral acids, (c) mercuric chloride. 

(a) Vinegar, olive oil, demulcent drinks, lemon juice. 

(b) Sodium bicarbonate, lime water, soap. 

(c) Egg albumin, flour and water. 

Give the treatment for strychnine poisoning in the dog. 

Produce vomiting at once; give tannin; place patient under 
ether, chloral or potassium bromide for a few hours. 

Name the antidotes for phosphorous poisoning. 

Copper sulphate, turpentine, peroxide of hydrogen, potassium 
permanganate. Never use oils. 

Mention a chemical antidote for arsenic and explain its action. 

Freshly prepared hydrated oxide of iron forms the insoluble 
ferric arsenite or arsenate. 

Give treatment in case of poisoning by Paris g^een. 

Same as arsenic. See preceding answer. Empty stomach ; give 
oils and mucilaginous drinks as well as stimulants. 

Give the chemical antidotes for (a) zinc salts, (b) lead salts. 

(a) Solution of tannin (or strong tea) forms the insoluble 
tannate of zinc. 



40 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

(b) Magnesium sulphate forms the insoluble sulphate of lead. 
In chronic lead poisoning, give potassium iodide liberally. 

Mention precautions to be observed in case of poisoning by mineral 
acids. 
Avoid stomach tube, as it might perforate the softened oesopha- 
gus. Neutralize the acids before producing vomiting. 

What is the treatment for carbolic acid poisoning? 

Give Epsom salts, or neutralize with alcohol, and produce vomit- 
ing with apomorphine or use the stomach pump. Opiates relieve 
pain. 

Physiological Chemistry 

Define physiological chemistry. 

Physiological chemistry is that part of chemistry which has 
more especially for its object the various chemical changes which 
take place in the living organism of either plants or animals. 

Define the terms metabolism, catabolism and anabolism. 

Metabolism refers to the various chemical changes occurring in 
the living body, due to the action of enzymes, bacteria, and the 
living cell activity. 

Catabolism is destructive metabolism, or the conversion of mat- 
ter, especially protoplasm, into a lower state of organization and 
ultimately into waste products. 

Anaholism is constructive metabolism, or the change of matter 
from a lower to a higher state of organization ; especially the conver- 
sion of matter into protoplasm. 

Define isotonic, hypo-isotonic and hyperisotonic solutions. 

Isotonic is a condition in which the tension in two substances, 
or solutions, is the same, that is, the osmotic pressure is equal, e.g., 
physiologic salt solution is isotonic with blood. 

Hypo-isotonic refers to a solution having a lesser osmotic power 
than another. 

Hyperisotonic refers to a solution having a greater osmotic power 
than another. A solution of salt in greater proportion than is 
present in a physiological salt solution would be hyperisotonic to 
blood. Such a solution if mixed with blood would cause hsemolysis 
and other changes. 

What is a physiologic salt solution? 

It is a solution of sodium chloride of a certain strength (0.6 to 
0.9 per cent.) which is isotonic with blood. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 41 

Define (a) osmosis, (b) diffusion. 

(a) Osmosis is the phenomenon of the passage of certain fluids 
through a porous substance, usually an animal membrane. 

(b) Diffusion is the gradual interchange of the particles of mis- 
cible liquids when brought together. 

CARBOHYDRATES 

Define carbohydrates. How do they differ from hydrocarbons? Give 
an example of each. 

Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of hydrogen, 
carbon and oxygen ; hydrogen and oxj^gen usually being present in 
the same proportion as in water. Example : glucose, CeHioOg. 

A hydrocarbon is an organic compound composed of carbon and 
hydrogen. Example: methane, CH^. 

Mention carbohydrates that are common food for horses and cattle. 

Starches, sugars and gums which are present in large propor- 
tions in nearly all the common feeding-stuffs. 

FATS 

Define fats. Give the names of three fats. 

Fats are compounds of the glyceryl radical and a fat acid 
radical. They are formed by glycerine and a fat acid, and consist 
of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, are insoluble in water, slightly 
soluble in cold alcohol, easily soluble in ether. In a pure state, 
all fats are odorless, colorless, tasteless substances, and stain paper 
permanently. 

Palmitin, stearin and olein are the principal animal fats. 

What is soap? Describe a laboratory method of preparing soap. 

Soap is a compound of one or more fatty acids with an alkali. 
It is usually prepared by the direct action of caustic soda or 
potash upon fats. 

MILK 

What is the composition of normal cow's milk? 

The average composition may be given as follows: 

Water 871.7 

Solids 128.3 

Albumins 35.5 

Fats 36.9 

Lactose 48.8 

Salts 7.1 



42 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Describe the process of determining the per cent, of butter fat in a 
specimen of milk. 
Take 20 c.c. of milk and add to it a small amount of a sodium 
hydrate solution. Extract the fat by adding 80 c.c. of ether which 
has been saturated with water. This is done by shaking in a tightly 
closed bottle. After the ethereal extract has entirely separated, 
60 c.c. are placed in a weighed beaker, and the ether allowed to 
evaporate ; the residue is dried and weighed. The result is calculated 
out for 80 c.c. of the ethereal extract, corresponding to 20 c.c. of 
milk. 

Describe briefly the cause of the souring of milk and the changes 
thereby produced. 
The lactic acid bacteria act upon the lactose, forming lactic acid 
which renders the milk sour and coagulates the caseinogen, the curd. 
The milk becomes acid in reaction, the curd settles as a thick, jelly- 
like mass, leaving a watery fluid, the whey, above. 

Give the requirements of the State of New York in regard to milk 
composition. 
Milk must contain twelve per cent, solids, of which three per cent, 
must be butter fat. 

Give the Pennsylvania State requirements for milk composition. 

Milk must contain not less than 12.5 per cent, solids, of which 
3 per cent, must be fat. 

URINE 

Describe a test for sugar in the urine. 

Place some Fehling's solution in a test tube and boil it. If no 
discoloration takes place, it is suitable for the test. Add a few 
drops of the suspected urine and boil. If the mixture suddenly 
turns to an opaque yellow or red color, the presence of sugar is 
indicated. 

Give a test for albumin in the urine. 

To a small amount of nitric acid in a test tube, gently pour upon 
the surface some of the suspected urine. If albumin is present, 
a ring of white coagulum occurs at the junction of the two fluids. 

Describe a method of detecting the presence of bile in the urine. 

Agitate a few drops of chloroform with the suspected urine 
in a test tube. If bile be present, the chloroform becomes turbid 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 43 

and acquires a yellowish hue, the depth of which depends upon the 
amount of bile present. 

What is Fehling's solution and for what is it employed? 

Fehling's solution is an aqueous solution of cupric sulphate 
mixed with potassio-sodic tartrate solution. It is used as a test for 
sugar. See answer to preceding question. 

State the specific gravity of normal urine. 

The specific gravity of horse urine ranges from 1020 to 1050, 
the average being about 1035. 

What is urea? Give its chemical formula. 

Urea is an end-product of metabolism. It is produced by the 
metabolism of the albuminous foods ingested and the albuminous 
substances in the body. It is a white, crystallizable substance and 
the chief nitrogenous constituent of urine. Formula, CONgH^. 



ANATOMY* 

Osteology 

Give the properties and describe the development of the growth of bone. 

Bone is composed of one-third animal matter and two-thirds 
mineral matter, principally phosphates and carbonates of lime. 

Externally, bones are covered by a very vascular and nervous, 
fibrous membrane, except over the articular surfaces and insertion 
of tendons and ligaments. Bone proper consists of lamellae, trav- 
ersed by "Haversian canals." These canals are very minute and 
are part of the vascular system. The medulla, or marrow, is a 
pulpy, fatty substance which fills the interior and the areolae of the 
spongy tissue of bones. Blood-vessels and nerves enter by way of 
the nutrient canal. Flat bones (found in the head) do not have a 
medullary cavity. 

Bones are developed from cartilages and fibrous tissue. The 
bones of the face and cranium are the only ones formed from the 
latter. Cartilage, undergoing calcification and being ramified with 
blood-vessels which carry the osteoblasts (bone-producing cells), 
eventually becomes hard, dense bone. Fibrous tissue is transformed 
very much the same except that the blood-vessels and other directing 
lines do not arrange themselves in parallel as in the long bones 
and, as a result, the medullary canal is absent, it being replaced 
by irregular, communicating cavities, called medullary spaces. 

How many bones are there in the skeleton of the horse? 

The number is subject to slight variation in different skeletons. 
Considering the sacrum as a single bone, the os hyoides as one and 
16 as the average number of coccygeal vertebrae, there are 191 
bones in the horse 's skeleton. 

Name the bones of the cranium. 

Occipital, parietal, frontal, sphenoid and ethmoid, and two tem- 
poral — seven in all. 
Name the bones of the head. 

Besides those of the cranium, above mentioned, there are the 
following pairs: superior maxillary, premaxillary, palatine, ptery- 
goid, malar, lachrymal, nasal, superior and inferior turbinated, and 
three single bones — vomer, inferior maxillary and liyoid. 

* Unless otherwise stated all questions relate to the horse. 

44 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 45 

Describe the frontal bone of the ox. 

A very large, flat bone, occupying nearly one-half the anterior 
surface of the head and forming the front part of the roof of the 
cranium and part of the face. Quadrilateral in shape, it presents 
an external and internal face and four borders. The external face, 
slightly convex, is extended laterally by the processes which form 
the orbital arches and rest on the malar bone. Its middle region is 
covered by the skin and constitutes the base of the forehead. In the 
upper third, the supra-orbital foramen opens into a vasculo- 
nervous groove which ascends toward the base of the horns, and 
descends to near the lower border of the bone. The internal face 
is concave and divided into two unequal parts by a transverse ridge. 
The superior, the more extensive, is covered with digital impres- 
sions and belongs to the cranial cavity. The inferior part, articu- 
lating in the median line with the ethmoid, shows, between the 
external and internal plates of the bone, the frontal sinuses, two 
spaces which form part of the roof of the nasal cavities. Projecting 
from each side of the superior border are the osseous conical cores 
which support the horns (absent in hornless breeds). These projec- 
tions are long and curved, very rugged, perforated by foramina and 
grooved by small vascular channels. The inferior border is deeply 
notched in its middle to receive the nasal bones. Laterally, the 
bone articulates with the sphenoid, parietal, lachrymal and malar. 
The orbital foramen, in the ox, belongs entirely to the frontal bone. 

Describe the superior maxillary bone. 

This bone, the most extensive in the upper jaw, is situated on the 
side of the face; it is bordered above by the frontal, palatine, 
zygomatic and lachrymal bones, below by the premaxillary, in front 
by the nasal, behind and within by that of the opposite side. It is 
elongated vertically and is irregularly triangular. 

The external face shows a convex surface ending below in the 
supermaxillary spine ; the infra-orbital foramen. The internal face 
shows a flat surface which forms the outer wall of the nasal fossa ; 
the maxillary sinus, the palatine canal ; a ridge for the attachment 
of the inferior turbinated; the inferior opening of the lachrymal 
. canal. 

The external border is very thick and hollowed into six large 
quadrilateral cavities, alveoli, which hold the molar teeth. Above 
the last alveolus is the alveolar tuberosity, and, below the first, the 
interdental space. 



46 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

The superior extremity is large and rounded and shows : a large 
cavity, the maxillary sinus ; the infra-orbital canal ; and the palatine 
canal. 

The inferior extremity presents a cavity which forms the alveolus 
of the tusk, and unites with a similar space in the premaxillary bone. 

Describe the inferior maxilla. 

The inferior maxillary is a very large bone, situated behind the 
upper jaw, and is composed of two symmetrical branches, joined at 
their lower extremities to form the intermaxillary space. It consists 
of two extremities, an inferior and superior, two faces, external and 
internal, and two borders, a superior and inferior. 

The inferior extremity shows the body of the bone which is 
formed by the union of the two lateral halves. The inferior face 
is smooth and convex, and shows the inferior opening of the maxillo- 
dental canal — the mental foramen; on a level with this foramen, 
the bone markedly contracts to form the neck. The superior face 
is smooth and concave ; it supports the free extremity of the tongue. 
The circumference is convex anteriorly and contains six sockets for 
the incisors, and behind these — in the male only — on either side is 
an additional socket for the tusks. The space between the lateral 
incisors and tusks is called the bars, or inferior interdental space. 

The superior extremity shows the condyloid process which 
articulates with the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone ; the neck, 
a constriction below the condyle; the coronoid process, in front of 
the condyle and separated from it by the sigmoid notch, is flattened 
on its sides and receives the terminal insertion of the temporalis 
muscle. 

The external face is smooth and rounded in its inferior two- 
thirds and roughened above for the insertion of the masseter 
muscle. The internal face presents in its upper one-third the 
superior orifice of the inferior maxillodental canal which runs down 
under the molar teeth, between the two plates of the bone, to the 
mental foramen; in its inferior two-thirds the internal face is 
smooth. Near the alveolar border and running parallel therewith 
is the myloid ridge. At the junction of the two sides is a roughened 
excavation — ^the genial surface. 

The superior, or alveolar border, shows a straight or inferior 
portion which is hollowed by six alveoli to receive the inferior molar 
teeth, and a curved or superior portion for muscular insertion. 
The inferior border shows a sharp, straight portion and a more 
rounded portion above. The union of these two portions forms the 
angle of the jaw. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 47 

Name the bones of the fore limbs of the horse and state how they 
differ from those of the ox. 

In the horse : Scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, scaphoid, lunar, 
cuneiform, pisiform, trapezoid, magnum, unciform, principal meta- 
carpus, two rudimentary metacarpi, suffraginis, coronae, pedis, two 
sesamoids and one naviculare. 

In the ox: Scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, six carpal bones (the 
OS magnum and trapezoid are fused together), two metacarpi (one 
principal and one rudimentary, situated outwardly), four digits — 
two with three phalanges and three sesamoids (as in the single digit 
of the horse), and two rudimentary ones, composed of two small 
bones. 

Describe the scapula and name the bone with which it articulates. 

The scapula is a flat, triangular-shaped bone which is applied 
against the anterior and outer plane of the thorax in an oblique 
direction downward and forward. 

It has two faces, external and internal; three angles, anterior 
or cervical, posterior or dorsal, and inferior or humeral, and three 
borders, anterior, posterior, and superior. 

The external surface is divided by a marked crest, the acromian 
spine, which runs parallel to the long axis of the bone, into two 
unequal depressed surfaces, the supra- and infraspinous fossse. 
The internal face is concave, forming the subscapular fossa, and is 
roughened for muscular insertion. 

The anterior or cervical angle is comparatively thin, the posterior 
or dorsal is thick. The inferior or humeral is separated from the 
rest of the bone by a slight constriction, the neck of the scapula. 
It presents a glenoid cavity, a round, shallow depression, which 
receives the head of the humerus, and in front, a coracoid process, 
with a base and a summit which curves inwardly. 

The superior border is sharp and thin, while the posterior is 
thick and slightly concave, and the superior is irregular and is 
prolonged by a thin cartilage, the cartilage of prolongation. 

The scapula articulates with the humerus. 

Describe the ulna. 

The ulna is an elongated, triangular-shaped bone which is applied 
against the posterior and upper three-fourths of the radius and 
strongly united with the same. It presents for study a middle por- 
tion and two extremities. 

The middle portion shows an external smooth, an internal con- 
cave, and an anterior rough surface which unites with the radius. 
In the middle third of the anterior surface is seen the ulnar groove 



48 VETERINAEY STATE BOARD 

whicli aids in forming the radio-nlnar arch. The posterior border is 
concave and thick. 

On the superior extremity is an enormous process, the olecranon, 
which provides place for the attachment of the extensors of the fore- 
arm. It shows anteriorly an articular surface, the sigmoid cavity, 
which terminates above in a beak. The inferior extremity terminates 
in a sharp point, and sometimes by a small knob, the capitellum, 
which sometimes extends to the inferior extremity of the radius. 

The ulna articulates with the humerus and radius. 

Name the bones of the carpus. 

Scaphoid, lunar, cuneiform, pisiform or supercarpal, trapezoid, 
magnum and unciform. 

Describe the pedal bone. 

The pedal bone, os pedis, third phalanx or coffin bone as it is 
variously known, supports the hoof and anterior limb. It is a short 
bone, somewhat pyramidal in shape, and is divided into three faces, 
three borders, and two lateral angles. 

The anterior face is perforated by vascular openings and shows 
laterally the preplantar fissure, a horizontal groove between the 
basilar and retrossal processes ; between this fissure and the inferior 
border of the bone is a roughened projecting surface, the patilobe 
eminence. The superior face shows two articular surfaces, glenoid 
cavities, which are divided by a median ridge. The inferior (or 
solar) face is somewhat concave and divided into two regions by 
the semilunar crest; just behind this crest and on either side the 
plantar fissures which open into a cavity in the interior, the semi- 
lunar sinus, may be seen. 

The superior border is convex forward and shows the p^rramidal 
eminence. The inferior border is convex and perforated by from 
five to ten large foramina. The posterior border is slightly con- 
cave and shows a diarthrodial facet for the navicular bone. 

The lateral angles are two projections which are directed back- 
ward. They show a superior, the basilar, and an inferior, the retros- 
sal, process. 

What bones enter into the formation of the foot? 

Seven carpals, three metacarpals, three phalanges and three 
sesamoids, before mentioned. 

Describe the first two cervical vertebrae. 

The first or atlas has no head but instead two deep concave 
facets which articulate with the occipital ; posteriorly, is an articular 
surface for the odontoid process of the axis ; the transverse processes 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 49 

are large, flattened and incline forward and downward ; there is no 
spinous process, but a roughened surface instead. At the base of 
each transverse process are two foramina which traverse it from 
below upward. 

The second or axis is the longest of all the cervical vertebrae. 
It terminates anteriorly in a conical process, the odontoid, which 
is convex, smooth below and concave above to articulate with the 
atlas. The spinous process is very prominent and elongated antero- 
posteriorly. The transverse processes are only slightly developed. 

Describe the common characteristics of vertebrae. 

Each vertebra has a body, and an arch enclosing the spinal canal. 
The superior face of the body forms the lower boundary of the 
spinal canal. The anterior extremity of the body is convex and the 
posterior is concave. The arch projects upward from the body and 
is composed of pedicles, lamina, transverse, spinous and articular 
processes. The articular processes, four in number, are distributed 
two anteriorly and two posteriorly. The anterior pair look upward, 
the posterior look downward. 

What are true vertebrae? Give the number in the horse, ox and dog. 
True vertebrae are those constituting the cervical, dorsal and lum- 
bar regions of the spinal column. There are 30 in the horse, 26 in 
the ox, and 27 in the dog. 

Describe the sternum of the horse and compare it with the sternum of 
the ox and dog. 

The sternum is the osteocartilaginous body which forms the in- 
ferior boundary of the thoracic cavity. It shows on either side 
articulations for the first eight ribs; anteriorly, it shows a carti- 
laginous mass, flattened on each side and curved upward, the cervical 
prolongation or presternum; posteriorly it is flattened above and 
below to form the xiphoid or ensiform cartilage. It is flattened, 
laterallj^, in its anterior two-thirds, and from above downward in its 
posterior one-third. ' 

The sternum never undergoes complete ossification. It is de- 
veloped, in the horse, from six single nuclei which never coalesce 
to form a single piece. 

In the ox, the sternum is made up of seven parts; they are 
much more compact than those in the horse, and are united to each 
other, with the exception of the first. There is no cervical pro- 
longation and the xiphoid cartilage is feebly developed. 

In the sternum of the dog, eight component parts are noted. 
They are hollowed in their middle part and thick at their ends. 
They are never ossified to each other. 
4 



50 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Describe the sacrum. 

The sacrum is formed by the consolidation of five vertebrae which 
are closely fused. It articulates, anteriorly, with the last lumbar 
vertebra, posteriorly, with the first coccygeal bone, and, laterally, 
with the OS innominata. 

The bone is triangular in shape with a base anteriorly, articulat- 
ing with the last lumbar vertebra through its body, articular and 
transverse processes; posteriorly, the apex articulates with the 
coccyx; and laterally, the first segment shows a sort of transverse 
process which has an auricular facet to furnish articulation with 
the OS innominata. The inferior surface is smooth and shows four 
intervertebral foramina, and the superior surface shows in its mid- 
dle the spinous processes which together constitute the sacral spine. 
On each side of the sacral spine is a groove which is pierced between 
each segment by the supersacral foramina. 

Name the bones of the pelvis. 

The OS innominatum, made up of the ilium, pubis and ischium, 
and the sacrum. 

Describe the cotyloid cavity. 

The cotyloid cavity is a deep excavation which is formed in the 
middle of the os innominata at the junction of the ilium, pubis and 
ischium. It is circumscribed by a narrow rim which is notched on 
the inner side to communicate with the subpubic notch. The deeper 
portion is roughened for ligamentous insertion. The cavity receives 
the articulating head of the femur. 

Describe the pelvis. State the difference between the pelvis of the 
horse and that of the ox. 

The pelvis is a bony cavity in the posterior part of the body, 
which prolongs the abdominal cavity between the sacrum and the 
coccygeal vertebrae. It is formed above by the sacrum, laterally 
by the ilia, but mostly by the sacrosciatic ligament, and below by 
the ischia and pubes. The inlet is bounded by the sacrum, pubes 
and ilia and has four diameters, vertical, horizontal and two 
oblique; the outlet, through which pass the rectum and genital 
organs, is bounded by the sacrum, ischia and sacrosciatic ligament, 
and has two diameters, vertical and horizontal. 

In the ox, the os innominatum is nearly horizontal, the transverse 
diameter is relatively less extensive, and the ilium is more oblique. 

Name the bones of the hind limb. 

The OS innominatum or coxa (composed of ilium, pubis and 
ischium), femur, tibia, fibula, the tarsus (composed of six bones. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 51 

viz., astragalus, calcaneum, cuneiform magnum, cuneiform medium, 
cuneiform parvum, and cuboid), one principal and two rudimentary 
metatarsi, two sesamoids, suffraginis, coronae, pedis, and naviculare. 

Give the number of ribs, sternal and asternal, in the horse, the ox and 
the dog respectively. 

Sternal : horse, 8 ; ox, 8 ; dog, 9. 
Asternal : horse, 10 ; ox, 5 ; dog, 4. 

Define trochanter, condyle, trochlea, foramen, sinus, tuberosity, spinous 
process, glenoid cavity. 

Trochanter is a large, bony eminence on the superior extremity of 
the femur, below the neck. 

A condyle is an articular eminence on the extremity of a bone 
which represents an ovoid segment cut parallel to its larger axis 
{e.g., the condyles of the femur). 

A trochlea is a pulley-like articular surface on the extremities 
of bones, as seen on the os astragalus or tibial-tarsal bone. 

A foramen is an opening into or surrounded by bone, through 
which blood-vessels and nerves pass. 

A sinus is a recess, cavity or hollow space surrounded by bone, 
found chiefly within the cranium. 

A tuberosity is a large, round, and slightly detached non- 
articular eminence on a bone (the great tuberosity of the 
humerus) . 

A spinous process is a bony projection on the dorsal face of a 
vertebra. 

A glenoid cavity is an oval, shallow, diarthrodial cavity in a bone 
(the glenoid cavity of the scapula). 

Arthrology 

Name the different classes of articulations and give an example of each 
class. 

Synarthroses, e.g., the occipitotemporal articulation. 
Amphiarthroses, e.g., the intervertebral articxdations. 
Diarthroses, e.g., the coxofemoral articulation. 

Define (a) synarthrosis, (b) amphiarthrosis, (c) diarthrosis. 

Synarthrosis is an immovable articulation as seen in the bones 
of the skull. 

Amphiarthrosis is a joint with limited movement, being inter- 
mediate between a synarthrosis and a diarthrosis ; e.g., the sacro-iliac 
joint. 

Diarthrosis is a freely movable joint, as the atlo-axoid. 



52 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

What structures may enter into the construction of the following 
different kinds of joints: (a) synarthrodia!, (b) amphi- 
arthrodial, and (c) diarthrodial ? 

(a) Bone, fibrous tissue and periosteum. 

(b) Bone, fibrocartilage, ligaments. 

(c) Bone, cartilage, ligaments, synovial capsule and synovia. 

Describe the atlo-axoid articulation. 

This is an example of a diarthrodial joint. It is made up of the 
odontoid and articular processes of the axis and the corresponding 
depressions on the atlas. 

Ligaments : Odontoid, from the odontoid to the inferior arch of 
the atlas; the superior atlo-axoid, between the spines; the inferior 
atlo-axoid below the bodies ; the capsular ligaments (two) between 
the articular processes ; synovial membrane. 

Action: Lateral rotation. 

Describe the articulating surfaces of the axis. 

Anteriorly, is a conical process, termed the odontoid, which is 
flattened above and below, convex and smooth on its inferior surface 
to fit the corresponding surface on the atlas. The anterior articu- 
lating processes (prezygopophyses) are carried to the base and to 
each side of the odontoid in the shape of two undulating facets and 
are confounded with the gliding surface of the latter. Posteriorly, 
is a wide and deep cavity to receive the head of the succeeding 
vertebra; above and on each side of this cavity are the posterior 
articulating processes (post-zygopophyses) inclined downward. 

Describe the joints that, back of the dentata, connect the vertebrae. 

Ligaments: 1. The common superior vertebral ligament which 
lies above the bodies of the vertebrae and is attached to them from 
the axis to the sacrum. 

2. The common inferior vertebral ligament which lies below the 
bodies and is attached to them from the sixth or eighth dorsal to 
the sacrum. 

3. An interarticular fibrocartilage which is found between the 
bodies of the vertebrge. 

4. A capsular ligament, between the articular processes. 

5. An intertransverse, between the transverse processes. 

6. An interlamellar, between the laminae. 

7. An interspinous, between the spinous processes. 

8. A supraspinous, between the summits of the spinous processes. 
The ligamentum nuchae extends from the first dorsal to the 

occiput. In the sacral and coccygeal regions the articulations are 
more or less fused and rudimentary. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 53 

The fibrocartilage in the lumbosacral articulation is very thick 
and the transverse processes of the last lumbar articulates with the 
external angles of the sacrum. The fifth and sixth lumbar also 
articulate between their transverse processes. 

The movements of the spinal column are those of flexion, exten- 
sion and lateral. These movements are quite free in the cervical 
region but restricted elsewhere. 

Describe the ligamentum nuchas, particularly as to its origin, distribu- 
tion and function. 
The ligamentum nuchas is composed of two portions, viz., a 
funicular portion, from the first dorsal spinous process to the sum- 
mit of the head, and a lamellar portion which extends between the 
spinous processes of the second dorsal and the last six cervical 
vertebras. 

Function: It acts as a stay and support to the head and main- 
tains the head and neck in a natural position during repose. 

What forms and kinds of costochondral and costosternal joints in the 

horse and the ox hinder or favor free breathing in the 

recumbent position? 

The costochondral in the horse are synarthrodial and hinder, but 

in the ox they are true gingymoid diarthroses and hence favor free 

breathing. The costosternal in both the horse and the ox are 

diarthrodial, but have a gliding movement only, hence they hinder 

free breathing in the recumbent position. 

Describe the shoulder- joint. 

The scapulohumeral articulation is an enarthrodial, or ball-and- 
socket joint, which is formed by the head of the humerus and the 
glenoid cavity of the scapula. 

Ligaments : A rudimentary glenoid ligament which deepens the 
cavity; a capsular ligament, extending from the margins of the 
cavity to the neck of the humerus; two supporting fasciculi from 
the coracoid process to the head of the humerus. 

The muscles in relation to the joint are : 

1. In front, coracoradial. 

2. Behind, large extensor of the forearm and teres minor. 

3. Outside, short abductor of the arm and postea spinatus. 

4. Inside, subscapulars. 

Action: Abduction, adduction, flexion, extension, rotation and 
circumduction. 

Name and describe the ligaments of the elbow- joint. 

An anterior, from the humerus above the articular surface to 
the anterior part of the radius. 



54 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

An external lateral, from the cavity outside of the humerus to 
the external portion of the radius. 

An internal lateral, from the inner tuberosity of the inferior 
extremity of the humerus to the radial tuberosity and to interos- 
seous fibres. 

Describe the radiocarpal articulation. 

The radiocarpal articulation is an imperfect ginglymoid which 
is made up of the lower articular surface of the radius and the four 
upper carpal bones. 

Three ligaments : an internal from the radius to the fourth bone, 
a superficial external from the radius to the supercarpal bone, and 
a deep external from the radius to the second bone and interosseous 
ligament. 

Name the structures composing the carpus. 

1. The articulations uniting the carpal bones of the first row to 
each other. 

2. The analogous articulations of the second row. 

3. The radiocarpal articulation. 

4. The articulation of the two rows with each other. 

5. The carpometacarpal articulation. 

Describe the ligaments of the knee-joint. 

Besides those mentioned above in describing the radiocarpal joint 
are three anterior and three interosseous in front of and between 
the first row of carpal bones ; two anterior and two interosseous in 
front of and between the second row ; an external posterior, from the 
first bone of the upper to the second bone of the lower row; an 
internal posterior, from the internal bone of the upper row to the 
second and third of the lower row ; an external, from the supercarpal 
bone to the first bone of the second row and head of the external 
metacarpal. 

Between the lower row and the metacarpal bones are two an- 
terior, one between the second bone and the principal metacarpal, 
the other from the first to the external metacarpal ; two interosseous 
from the articulation between the metacarpi to the interosseous 
ligaments of the second row. 

Common carpal ligaments are : 

1. Anterior, from the radius to the principal metacarpus. 

2. Posterior, from the posterior part of the radial surface to the 
carpus and the principal metacarpus. 

3. External lateral, from the outer side of the radius to the 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 56 

first bones of the upper and lower rows and the outer metacarpal 
bone. 

4. Internal lateral, from the inner side of the radius to the prin- 
cipal and inner metacarpi, as well as to the capsular ligament. 

Name the bones and ligaments of the fetlock joint. 

Bones : Metacarpus, first phalanx, and two sesamoids. 

Ligaments: Intersesamoid, between the two sesamoids; lateral 
sesamoid, between the sides of the sesamoid and the upper extremity 
of the first phalanx ; inferior sesamoid, of three fasciculi from the 
posterior surface of the first phalanx to the sesamoid bones ; external 
and internal lateral, from the metacarpus to the sides of the 
first phalanx; an anterior, between the anterior surfaces of both 
bones ; a posterior, or suspensory ligament of the fetlock, from the 
first and second bone of the inferior carpal row and posterior face* 
of the principal metacarpus to the top of the sesamoids, where it 
divides into two fasciculi which pass forward and are inserted into 
the anterior extensor of the phalanges. 

What is the function of the suspensory ligament? 

It acts as a mainstay or brace to the foot, and assists in preventing 
jar from concussion when the fore limbs are brought to the ground 
in locomotion. 

Describe the first interphalangeal articulation. 

This is an imperfect ginglymus, between the os suffraginis and 
OS coronae. Ligaments: two lateral ligaments between the sides of 
the bones; one posterior ligament, or glenoidal fibrocartilage 
attached to the first and second phalanges by six bands, increases 
the articular surface below and forms a sheath for the passage of 
the perforans tendon. 

Movements : Flexion, extension and some lateral motion. 

Describe and discuss the functions of the lateral cartilages. 

The lateral cartilages, two in number, are composed of fibrous 
and cartilaginous tissue, and are the shape of an oblique parallelo- 
gram. They are prolonged behind the third phalanx and are 
attached in front to the anterior lateral ligament, behind, to the 
basilar and retrossal processes and plantar cushion. They are thin 
above with a notch posteriorly for vessels; thick below, concave 
internally, with vascular foramina, and convex externally, with 
foramina for vessels. 

In association with the plantar cushion they act as cushions in 
preventing jar and allowing for expansion when the foot is brought 
in contact with the ground. 



J 



56 VETEEINARY STATE BOARD 

Describe the hip-joint. 

The coxofemoral articulation is an enarthrodial, or ball-and- 
. socket, joint between the cotyloid cavity of the os innominata and 
the head of the femur. 

Ligaments: Capsular, extending from the margins of the coty- 
loid cavity to the neck of the femur; a transverse, converting the 
notch into a foramen ; a cotyloid which deepens the cavity ; a coxo- 
femoral (ligamentum teres), from the bottom of the cotyloid cavity 
to the depression in the head of the femur ; a pubiof emoral, from the 
inferior face of the pelvis to the cotyloid cavity; a synovial mem- 
brane which is very extensive. 

Muscles in relation to the joint are, anteriorly, the gracilis and 
rectus ; posteriorly, the gemelli, internal obturator and pyramidalis ; 
inf eriorly, the external obturator ; and superiorly, the small gluteus. 

State the difference between the hip-joint of the horse and that of 
the ox. 

See answer to preceding question. 

The pubiofemoral ligament is absent in the ox, which permits of 
greater freedom to movements of abduction. 

Describe the femorotibial articulation. 

A diarthrodial type of joint, between the femur, tibia and 
patella. 

Ligaments: An anterior, made of three strong fasciculi from 
the patella to the anterior surface of the tibia; the antepatellar 
aponeurosis, which is an expansion of the fascia lata, binds the 
patella to the femur by two lateral fasciculi; an external lateral, 
from the external condyle to the head of the fibula ; an internal lat- 
eral, from the inner condyle to the inner tibial tuberosity; a pos- 
terior, from the posterior face of the femur to the tibia ; two crucial, 
or interosseous, from the intercondyloid notch to the tibial spine, 
crossing in the centre, forming an X ; two interarticular fibrocarti- 
lages (menisci), attached to the tibial spine and by fasciculi to the 
femur and tibia; a synovial membrane in two portions, one under 
the patella and the other under the lateral ligaments. 

Action: Flexion, extension and rotation. 

Name the various articulations of the tarsal joint. 

Tibiotarsal, calcaneo-astragaloid, second row of tarsus with each 
other, two rows of tarsus with each other, and tarsometatarsal. 

Describe the calcaneocuboid ligament. 

A strong fibrous brace which unites the posterior border of the 
calcis to the cuboides and to the head of the external rudimentary 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 57 

metatarsal bone. It blends, outwardly, with the external and super- 
ficial, tibiotarsal ligament, and inwardly, with the posterior tarso- 
metatarsal band. Strains of this ligament give rise to ' ' curb. ' ' 

Myology 
Describe aponeuroses. 

Aponeuroses are flattened bands of white fibrous tissue which 
envelop, in common, all the muscles of one or several adjoining re- 
gions, and by one extremity are attached to the bones. They main- 
tain the muscles in their position and sustain them during their 
contraction. 

Describe the masseter muscle. 

A short, wide and very thick muscle, irregularly quadrilateral, 
applied against the external face of the mandible. Origin: the 
zygomatic process of the temporal bone. Insertion: the outer sur- 
face of the ramus of the jaw. Action : elevator of the jaw. Nerve : 
inferior maxillary branch of the fifth. 

Name the muscles that close the jaw and give the attachments of each. 

Masseter, see above. Temporal, from the temporal fossa, the 
temporal fascia and the outer border of the orbit to the coronoid 
process and ramus of the inferior maxilla ; pterygoid internus, from 
the palatine crest and subsphenoidal process to the hollow on the 
inner face of the inferior maxilla; pterygoid externus, from the 
inferior face of the sphenoid and the pterygoid process to the neck 
of the condyle of the lower maxilla. 

Name the muscles of the globe of the eye. 

Retractor oculi; superior, inferior, external and internal recti; 
superior oblique and inferior oblique. 

Describe the mastoidohumeralis muscle. 

It extends from the summit of the head to the inferior part of the 
arm. It consists of two portions, viz., an anterior portion which 
originates on the mastoid process and crest, and is inserted in the 
furrow of torsion of the humerus, below the deltoid imprint; a 
posterior portion which originates on the transverse processes of the 
first four cervical vertebrge and is inserted with the anterior portion. 
It carries the limb forward or inclines the head to the side. 

Name the muscle separating the carotid artery from the jugular vein. 
What is the function of this muscle ? 
The subscapulohyoideus. It is a depressor of the hyoid bone 
and its appendages. 



58 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Name the muscles that aid in flexing the shoulder- joint. 

Teres externus (long abductor of the arm) and teres internus 
(adductor of the arm). 

Name the muscles of the brachial region. 

Anterior region: the flexor brachii and humeralis obliquus. 
Posterior brachial region : the triceps, viz., caput magnum, caput 
medium and caput parvum, and the anconeus. 

Name the muscles of the forearm. 

Four anteriorly, viz., anterior extensor of the metacarpus, 
oblique extensor of the metacarpus, extensor pedis and extensor suf- 
fraginis. 

Five posteriorly, viz., external flexor of the metacarpus, oblique 
flexor of the metacarpus, flexor pedis perforatus, flexor pedis per- 
forans and internal flexor of the metacarpus. 

Describe the flexor pedis perforans. 

Situated immediately behind the radius and is composed of three 
portions which unite at the carpus to continue to the inferior 
extremity of the digit by a long and powerful tendon. 

Origin: The summit of the epitrochlea, summit and posterior 
border of the olecranon, and posterior surface of the radius, by 
the three portions, respectively. Above the carpus, these three 
unite and pass through the carpal sheath and between the two 
terminal branches of the perforatus tendon to its insertion, the 
semilunar crest of the os pedis. 

Name all the muscles that would be severed in amputating the fore limb 
just above the knee. 
All those of the forearm mentioned above. 

Name the muscles that flex the carpus. Give their attachments. 

1. External flexor of the metacarpus, from the external condyle 
of the humerus to the supercarpal and external metacarpal bones. 

2. Oblique flexor of the metacarpus from the base of the epi- 
trochlea and olecranon to the supercarpal. 

3. Internal flexor of the metacarpus from the base of the epi- 
trochlea to the head of the internal metacarpal bone. 

4. Plexor pedis perforatus arises on the summit of the epi- 
trochlea and extends to the second phalanx ; in contracting shortly, 
it flexes the carpus. 

5. Flexor pedis perforans, described above. 

Give the origin, insertion and action of the flexor brachii. 
Origin : Coracoid process of the scapula. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 59 

Insertion: Superior and internal tuberosity of the radius, the 
capsular and internal lateral ligament. 
Action : Flexes the forearm. 

Give the origin, insertion and action of the flexor metacarpi medius. 

This is the same as the oblique flexor of the metacarpus given 
above. 

Name the muscles of the gluteal region, or croup. 

Three : superficial, middle and deep glutei. 

Name the muscles attached to the upper third of the femur. 

Great psoas, iliopsoas, superficial, middle and deep glutei, ten- 
sor fascia lata, vastus externus, vastus internus, pectineus, small 
adductor of the thigh, great adductor of the thigh, quadratus fem- 
oris, obturator externus, internal obturator, and gemelli. 

Give the origin and the insertion of the vastus externus muscle. 

Origin : Outer and anterior surfaces of the superior extremity of 
the femur. 

Insertion : Superior face and external side of the patella. 

Give the origin, insertion and action of the popliteus. 

Origin : Outside the external condyle of the femur. 
Insertion: Into the triangular surface on the posterior surface 
of the tibia in its superior parts. 

Action : Flexes the tibia and rotates it outward. 

Describe the origin, insertion and action of the gastrocnemius. 

Origin : The external head from above and behind the external 
condyle of the femur ; the internal head from the internal condyle. 

Insertion : Into the posterior part of the summit of the os calcis 
after passing into a bursa. 

Action : Extends the foot on the tibia. 

Give the origin, insertion and action of the sartorius. 

Origin: The iliac aponeurosis near the tendon of the psoas 
parvus. 

Insertion : The internal patellar ligament. 
Action : Adducts the leg and flexes the femur. 

Name and give the attachments of the muscles that flex the tarsus. 

1. Flexor metatarsi: the tendinous portion orginates from the 
front of the femur between the trochlea and the external condyle 
and is inserted in front of the superior extremity of the principal 
metatarsus and to the cuboid bone ; the muscular portion originates 
from the tibia on the sides of the groove through which the tendon 



60 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

passes, and is inserted in front of the superior extremity of the 
principal metatarsus and the second cuneiform bone. 

2. Anterior extensor of the phalanges: originates in the digital 
fossa above the external condyle of the femur ; and is inserted in the 
capsular ligament of the metatarsophalangeal articulation, the an- 
terior surfaces of the first two phalanges, and the pyramidal emi- 
nence of the OS pedis. 

3. Lateral extensor of the phalanges: originates along the ex- 
ternal femorotibial ligament and the whole extent of the fibula, and 
terminates in the tendon of the anterior extensor. 

Give the origin, course, relations and termination o£ the lateral ex- 
tensor of the phalanges (peroneus). 

Origin and termination given above. 

The muscular portion extends in the direction of the tibia on the 
external side from the superior to its inferior extremity. The 
tendinous portion, succeeding the muscular portion, passes to the 
external side of the tarsus through the tibial sheath and passes for- 
ward to join the tendon of the anterior extensor, near the middle of 
the metatarsal region. 

The muscular body is enveloped in a special containing apo- 
neurosis which separates it in front from the anterior extensor and 
behind from the perf orans. The tendon covers the tibia and margins 
the external and superficial ligament of the tibiotarsal articulation. 

Name the muscles of the tail. 

Six sacrococcygeal muscles, viz., two superior, two inferior and 
two lateral ; two ischiococcygeal muscles. 

Describe the panniculus carnosus muscle. 

An immense wide muscle on the inner surface of the skin, cover- 
ing the sides of the thorax and abdomen. It is irregularly triangular, 
thin at its borders and thicker in its middle. 

Origin : From the flank to the posterior border of the ulnar mass 
of muscles and pectoralis major. 

Insertion: One layer to the anterior limb and one to the small 
trochanter; aponeurotic fibres attach it to the internal surface of 
the skin and fascia of the superficial muscles. 

Action: In contracting, the whole cutaneous integument is 
shaken, thus preventing insects from alighting. 

Give the origin, insertion and action of the longissimus dorsi. 

Origin : The lumbar border, external angle and internal surface 
of the ilium, and the spinous processes of all the lumbar, dorsal and 
last four cervical vertebrae. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 61 

Insertion : The transverse processes of the lumbar vertebraB and 
the outer surfaces of the fifteen or sixteen last ribs. 

Action : Extends the vertebral column and pulls the ribs forward 
in expiration. 

Give the origin, insertion and action of the longus colli muscle. 

Origin: Posterior portion arises from the inferior face of the 
bodies of the first six dorsal vertebrae. The middle portion, from 
the transverse processes of the last six cervical vertebrae. The an- 
terior portion, from the anterior three or four fasciculi of the 
middle portion. 

Insertion: The posterior portion is inserted on the tubercle of 
the sixth cervical vertebra. The middle portion, on the inferior 
ridge of the bodies of the first six cervical vertebrse. The anterior 
portion, on the inferior tubercle of the atlas. 

Action: Flexes the neck. 

Give the origin, insertion and action of the serratus magnus. 
Origin : The external surface of the first eight ribs. 
Insertion : The anterior and posterior triangular surfaces of the 
scapula and the subscapularis. 

Action : Supports the body as a girdle, or depresses the scapula. 

Describe the diaphragm. What important structures pass through the 
diaphragm ? 

The diaphragm is the muscular partition between the thoracic 
and abdominal cavities. 

Originates by right and left pillars from the lumbar vertebrae 
and is confounded with the inferior common ligament of the spine ; 
also from the xiphoid appendage of the sternum, and the anterior 
extremities of the last twelve ribs. 

Insertion: Phrenic centre, dividing into right and left leaflets. 

The diaphragm is related anteriorly with the pleura and lungs ; 
posteriorly, with the peritoneum, stomach, liver, colon and spleen. 

The aorta, thoracic duct, vena cava and oesophagus pass through 
the diaphragm. 

How does the diaphragm of the ox differ from that of the horse? Of 
what surgical importance is this difference? 
The attachments of the muscular portion are much farther dis- 
tant from the cartilaginous circle than in the horse. 

This arrangement permits puncture of the rumen through the 
last intercostal space, whereas a puncture at this point in the horse 
would enter the thoracic cavitv. 



62 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Name the muscles of respiration. 

Inspiratory : External and internal intercostals, levatores costa- 
rum, serratus anticus, serratus magnus, latissimus dorsi, diaphragm- 
Expiratory: External and internal intercostals, serratus posti- 
cus, triangularis sterni, great and small ohlique muscles of the 
ahdomen, longissimus dorsi, and the retractor of the last rih. 

Describe the inguinal canal, stating the structures which it contains. 

A canal, two to two and one-half inches in length, on each side 
and in front of the pubic bone, running downward, backward and 
inward, comprised between Poupart's ligament of the great oblique 
muscle, posteriorly, and the small oblique muscle anteriorly. Its 
inferior orifice (external or cutaneous orifice, inguinal or external 
abdominal ring) is much larger than the superior (internal) ring. 

The spermatic cord and vessels in the male, and the external 
mammary vessels in the female pass through the inguinal canal. 

Describe the navicular sheath. 

The navicular sheath is a fibrous membrane which covers the os 
naviculare and the single ligament of the pedal articulation. It is 
reflected on the plantar aponeurosis of the flexor pedis tendon, in 
front of this ligament and ascends to the inferior sac of the sesamoid 
sheath, where it is reflected upon itself, thereby forming two culs-de- 
sac, one superior and one inferior. It is lined by a synovial mem- 
brane which aids the aponeurosis of the tendon in gliding over the 
navicular bone. 

CiRCULATORY ORGANS 

State the position of the heart and show its relation to the right and 
left walls of the chest and to the sternum in the horse 
and dog. 

In the horse, the heart occupies a position in the middle line of 
the chest, corresponding to the third, fourth, fifth and sixth ribs, 
being enclosed in a sac and suspended from the spine by its aortic 
vessels. Its base is uppermost, its apex nearly touches the sternum 
but does not rest on the ribs. The diaphragm lies just behind the 
apex. The heart is separated from the right wall of the chest by 
the right lobe of the lung. There is a triangular notch in the left 
lung which exposes the left ventricle and allows it to make its 
impulse felt against the chest wall. 

In the dog, the heart occupies a more nearly median position, 
resting almost entirely on the upper face of the sternum and about 
equidistant from the right and left chest wall. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 63 

Describe the right and left heart, noting the size of the different cavi- 
ties, the thickness of the walls at different points, the nature, 
position and dependencies of the four sets of valves and 
the source and distribution of the vascular and nervous 
supply. 

The heart is divided by a vertical septum into two parts, which 
are further divided into four by a transverse septum. The cavities 
above the transverse septum are called right and left auricles, those 
below, the right and left ventricles, the two latter constituting the 
largest portion of the heart. 

The right auricle : The walls are about one-fourth of an inch in 
thickness. It receives the anterior vena cava, posterior vena cava, 
vena azygos, and the large coronary veins. It opens, in its floor, into 
the right ventricle through the auriculoventricular opening. 

The right ventricle : Its walls are on an average six-tenths of an 
inch thick. It has two openings, the auriculoventricular, and the 
pulmonary opening into the pulmonary artery. 

The left auricle : Similar to the right. The walls are irregular 
in thickness, varying from one-third of an inch in some places to a 
very thin membranous wall in others. It receives the pulmonary 
veins and empties through the auriculoventricular opening in its 
floor into the left ventricle. 

The left ventricle : Its walls are on an average one and one-fifth 
to one and five-eighths inches in thickness. Two openings, the 
auriculoventricular and aortic. 

The valves of the heart are made of fibrous segments. The right 
auriculoventricular is composed of three segments (tricuspid) 
attached by their free edges to the ventricular wall by tendinous 
cords, chordae tending. The left auriculoventricular is composed 
of two segments (bicuspid) and is similarly attached. The pul- 
monary and aortic openings of the ventricles are closed by the semi- 
lunar valves made up of three segments which are also attached 
by tendinous cords. 

The blood supply of the heart is by the two coronary arteries, 
branches from the trunk of the aorta at the sigmoid valves. Each 
divides into two principal branches, one passing along the horizontal, 
the other in the vertical furrow of the heart. The venous blood is 
returned to the right auricle by the coronary vein. 

The nerves of the heart, furnished by the cardiac plexus, come 
from the pnemnogastrie and sympathetic. 

Mention all the arteries given off from the posterior aorta. 

Intercostals, phrenic, lumbar, middle sacral, broncho-oesophageal, 
cceliac axis, anterior mesenteric, posterior mesenteric, renal, sper- 



64 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

matic, small testicular (uterine in females), external and internal 
lilacs. 

Name the terminal branches of the anterior aorta. 
The two axillary arteries. 

Name in regular order the important blood-vessels through which the 
blood moves in passing from the left ventricle to the right 
front foot. 
Common aorta, anterior aorta, axillary, humeral, posterior radial, 
collateral artery of the cannon, digital. 

Describe the posterior radial artery and give its branches. 

It arises from the humeral artery near the inferior extremity of 
the humerus, passes along the internal ligament of the elbow- joint, 
along the inner side of the radius to the inferior extremity of the 
same, where it divides into the common interosseous, metacarpal 
and collateral artery of the cannon, giving off branches in its course 
to the elbow and muscles of the forearm. 

Describe the digital arteries and their branches. 

The digital arteries originate just above the fetlock, from the 
terminal extremity of the collateral artery of the cannon, and 
descend one to the right, the other to the left, along the margin of 
the flexor tendons to the basilar process of the pedal bone, where 
they bifurcate to form the plantar and preplantar ungual arteries. 

Several small branches are given off at the fetlock to the articu- 
lation, sesamoid sheath and tendons. Near the middle of the os 
suffraginis, the perpendicular artery, with anterior and posterior 
branches, encircles the limb, and by anastomosing both before and 
behind, supplies the neighboring tissues. Small branches are given 
off to the plantar cushion and coronary circle. The preplantar 
ungual enters foramina in the os pedis. The plantar ungual passes 
into the plantar fissure, plantar canal and semilunar sinus and unites 
with the opposite to form the semilunar anastomosis. 

Give the origin and the distribution of the brachial artery. 

The brachial, or axillary, arteries, two in number, are the ter- 
minal branches of the anterior aorta. They give off the following 
branches: dorsal, superior cervical, vertebral, internal thoracic, 
external thoracic, superior cervical, suprascapular and subscapular ; 
after giving off these branches, the brachial artery is continued as 
the humeral artery. In addition to those named, the right axillary 
gives off, near its origin, the common trunk of the two carotid 
arteries. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 65 

Name the branches of the external carotid artery. 

Glossofacial, maxillomuscular, posterior auricular, superficial 
temporal and internal maxillary. 

State the anatomic relations of the external carotid artery. 

From its origin to the hyoid bone, it is related inwardly to the 
guttural pouch and the glossopharyngeal and superior laryngeal 
nerves; outwardly, to the outer belly of the digastric muscle and 
the hypoglossal nerve ; throughout the rest of its course, it is com- 
prised between the guttural pouch, the parotid gland, the great 
cornu of the hyoid bone, and the inner side of the posterior border 
of the inferior maxilla. 

Give the course and the termination of the vertebral artery. 

It arises from the axillary at the first intercostal space. It passes 
beneath the transverse process of the seventh and through the 
foramina of the upper six cervical vertebrae, anastomosing with 
the retrograde branch of the occipital and giving off muscular and 
spinal branches at each intervertebral space. 

Give the blood supply of the larynx. 

The laryngeal artery, which arises from the common carotid at a 
short distance from its termination, just behind the larynx. 

Give the blood supply of the salivary glands. 

Small branches from the external carotid supply the parotid and 
submaxillary glands. The sublingual is supplied by the sublingual 
artery. 

Trace the course of the blood from the left ventricle to the left hind foot, 
naming in regular order all the important vessels through 
which the blood passes. 
The common aorta, posterior aorta, external iliac, femoral, popli- 
teal, anterior tibial, collateral artery of the cannon, digital, plantar 
and preplantar. A collateral stream from the popliteal passes 
through the posterior tibial region and gives off an interosseous 
branch which unites with the collateral artery of the cannon just 
above the fetlock. 

Describe the origin and distribution of the external iliac artery. 

Originates in common with the internal iliac from the posterior 
extremity of the posterior aorta and gives off the small testicular, 
or artery of the cord in the male, or the uterine in the female, and 
the circumflex iliac; then it is continued as the femoral upon 
leaving the anterior border of the pubis. 
5 



66 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Describe the coeliac axis and name its branches. 

The coeliac axis is a short trunk which arises from the posterior 
aorta immediately upon the entrance of that vessel into the abdom- 
inal cavity. After a course of three-fourths inch, it separates into 
three large branches, the gastric, splenic and hepatic arteries. 

Describe the origin and the distribution of the internal iliac artery. 

The internal iliac artery arises from the posterior extremity of 
the posterior artery and terminates near the insertion of the small 
psoas muscle by dividing into the obturator and iliofemoral arteries. 
It gives off the following branches: umbilical, internal pudic, ilio- 
lumbar, lateral sacral and gluteal. 

Give the course and the termination of the femoral artery. 

It arises at the anterior border of the pubis as a continuation 
of the external iliac and descends to the superior extremity of the 
gastrocnemius, where it is continued as the popliteal. The following 
branches are given off: prepubic, femoris profunda, superficial 
femoris, small muscular, and saphena. 

Give the blood supply of the stomach. 

Supplied by the gastric artery, a branch of the coeliac axis. 

Give the blood supply of the spleen. 

Supplied by the splenic artery, a branch of the coeliac axis. 

Give the blood supply of the uterus. 

The uterine artery which arises from the posterior aorta or from 
the external iliac near its origin; the utero-ovariau which arises 
from the posterior mesenteric. 

Give the functional and nutritive blood supply of the liver and lungs. 

Liver : Functional supply, the portal vein ; nutritive, the hepatic 
artery, a branch of the coelic axis. 

Lungs: Functional, pulmonary artery; nutritive, bronchial 
artery which is given off from the posterior aorta near the first pair 
of intercostals. 

Give the blood supply of bone. 

The arteries of bones belong to three orders, viz. : 
Those of the first order penetrate to the interior of the medullary 
canal of long bones, by a particular orifice, the nutrient foramen. 
They soon divide into a network that lines the walls of the canal and 
enters the medulla. This network communicates with the arteries 
of the second order which go to the spongy tissue of the extremities 
of the long bones. The arteries of the third order are branches 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 67 

of the periostic network that enters the superficial Haversian canals. 
In the fiat and short bones, there are no arteries of the first order. 

Describe the systemic circulation. 

The blood enters the left auricle from the lungs through the 
pulmonary vein, passes through the bicuspid valve into the left 
ventricle, through the semilunar valve into the common aorta, an- 
terior and posterior aorta, from thence it is distributed to all parts 
of the body, passing through arteries, capillaries and into the veins 
back to the right auricle, through the anterior and posterior vena 
cava. At the right auricle, the pulmonary circulation begins. 

Describe the pulmonary circulation^ 

The blood reaches the right auricle through the anterior and pos- 
terior vena cava and passes through the tricuspid valve into the right 
ventricle, thence through the semilunar valve into the pulmonary 
artery, through which it is carried to the lungs. In the lungs it goes 
through a fine network of capillaries and returns through the pul- 
monary vein to the left auricle, here to begin the systemic circu- 
lation. 

Describe the fetal circulation of the blood. 

The blood, after interchanging gases in the placenta, enters the 
umbilical vein and is carried to the liver. In the substance of the 
liver, it is mixed with the venous blood from the intestines and 
posterior parts, through the medium of the ductus venosus, and at 
last arrives at the right auricle. From here it passes into the left 
auricle through the foramen ovale, thence into the left ventricle and 
aorta. The greater portion is driven into the vessels that supply 
the head, neck and fore limbs, the remainder passes backward in the 
posterior aorta. After the fluid has circulated in the anterior part 
of the body, it is returned to the right auricle by the anterior vena 
cava. From the right auricle, it passes to the right ventricle, and 
from this cavity it is pumped into the pulmonary artery, thence 
through the ductus arteriosus into the posterior aorta, which carries 
it to the hinder parts of the body. The veins of the hind parts unite 
in forming the timbilical artery, which conveys the blood to the 
placenta. The umbilical artery is practically a continuation of the 
internal iliacs. (The ductus venosus only exists in ruminants.) 

Describe the umbilical arteries of the foetus. 

The umbilical arteries arise from the internal iliacs and pass 
along the sides of the bladder. Escaping at the umbilicus, they 
arrive at the terminal extremity of the amniotic portion of the 
cord, and, giving off some branches to the amnion, they are continuej^ 



68 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

to the extremity of the allantoid portion, where they end in an 
expansion of placental ramifications. 

Describe the ductus arteriosus and the foramen ovale in the foetus. 
Give their uses and state what remnants of these can be 
found in mature life. 

The ductus arteriosus is a short vessel which connects the pul- 
monary artery, near its origin, to the posterior aorta. In fetal life, 
the lungs do not functionate, hence the blood is not carried to them 
but takes this short course to the aorta. This duct remains, but in 
mature life is represented by a yellow elastic fibrous cord (the liga- 
mentum arteriosum). 

The foramen ovale is the opening between the right and left 
auricles, through which the blood passes in fetal life. It is pro- 
vided with a valve, the Eustachian valve (absent in horse and pig), 
that stretches from the mouth of the posterior vena cava to the 
annulus, or thickened border of the foramen. The function of this 
valve is to direct the blood-stream into the left auricle, from whence 
it goes into the systemic circulation. In mature life, the foramen 
ovale is represented by a depression of a thin membrane, surrounded 
by the ring of Vieussens, or annulus ovalis. Occasionally the open- 
ing persists throughout adult life. 

Describe the anterior vena cava. 

A large trunk extending from the entrance of the chest to the 
right auricle. It is formed by the union of the two axillary and 
the two jugular veins. It receives in its course : the internal 
thoracic, vertebral, superior cervical and dorsal veins, and the 
great vena azygos. 

Give the origin of the vena azygos and name its tributaries. 

Originates at the first lumbar vertebra and extends forward to 
the sixth dorsal, where it terminates in the anterior vena cava. Its 
tributaries are the satellite veins of the first lumbar and all of the 
aortic intercostal arteries, right and left. 

Describe the pulmonary veins. 

The pulmonary veins, four to eight in number, arise from the 
substance of the lung, emerging immediately above the origin of the 
bronchi. They terminate in the left auricle, which they enter by way 
of four to eight orifices. They have no valves. Their function is to 
carry the blood from the lungs, where it has been purified, to the 
left auricle to begin the systemic circulation. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 69 

Give the course and relations of the jugular vein. 

Formed by the uuion of the superficial temporal and internal 
maxillary veins, behind the inferior maxilla. It passes downward 
and backw^ard, lodged at first in the substance of the parotid gland, 
afterward in the jugular furrow (the muscular interspace between 
the mastoidohumeralis and the sternomaxillaris) . At the inferior 
extremity of the neck, it unites with its mate to form the confluent 
of the jugulars. After leaving the parotid gland, the jugular is 
covered externally by the cervical panniculus. Inwardly and 
above, it is related to the subscapulohyoideus muscle, which separates 
it from the carotid, but in its inferior part it is in direct relation 
with that vessel, the trachea and the oesophagus. 

Branches : maxillomuscular, posterior auricular, occipital, glosso- 
facial, thyroid, cephalic, parotidean and many small muscular veins. 

Describe the course and the function of the portal vein. 

It begins in the sublumbar region, by the union of the anterior 
and posterior mesenteries and the splenic veins ; it is then directed 
forward, traversing the pancreatic ring, below the vena cava, and 
is afterward lodged in the great fissure of the liver, where it ramifies 
by forming the interlobular veins. It receives on its course the 
right gastro-omental and anterior gastric veins. Its function is to 
carry the blood which comes from the intestinal walls, charged with 
assimilable substances, that are absorbed by the veins of the villi, 
to the liver. 

Give a general description of the lymphatics. 

The lymphatics are vessels with very thin and transparent walls, 
foimd all over the body, except in blood-vessels, nervous tissue, 
bone, muscles, eyeball, cartilage, tendons, the membranes of the 
ovum, placenta, umbilical cord, cuticle and hair. They possess 
nutrient vessels, no nerves, have valves, and carry lymph or chyle 
into the vascular system. Like the veins, the lymphatics terminate 
in two principal trunks, resembling the vena cava; and, like the 
veins, have three tunics. The lymphatics originate from capillaries 
which form networks or terminal culs-de-sac. They terminate, as 
before stated, by emptying into the vascular system; the union of 
the blood with the lymphatic system takes place at the origin of the 
anterior vena cava. 

Give the course and the termination of the thoracic duct. 

The thoracic duct receives all the lymphatics except those of the 
right side of the head, neck and thorax and the right anterior 
limb. It originates beneath the vertebral column, near the first 
lumbar vertebra, where it is marked by a very irregular dila- 



70 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

tation (receptaeulum ehyli), passes forward through the pillars 
of the diaphragm to the sixth dorsal vertebra, where it passes to the 
left and empties, after a dilatation, into the anterior vena cava at 
the junction of the jugulars. 

Describe the lymphatic glands. 

The lymphatic glands are ovoid, spherical or discoid bodies of 
medium consistency, which intercept the course of lymphatic vessels 
at several points. Their number is considerable, and they are rarely 
single, but most frequently are collected in groups along the blood- 
vessels. All the vessels of the lymphatic system are provided with 
one or more of these glands on their course. The branch of the 
vessel, entering the gland, is called the afferent, and that leaving, 
the efferent. The capsule of the gland sends fibrous strands into its 
substance, dividing it into very minute spaces (lymph sinuses) 
which are filled with lymph corpuscles. The afferent vessels take a 
tortuous course and, communicating with the sinuses, become 
charged with lymph-cells. 

Lymph-glands are richly supplied with blood-vessels which 
penetrate the gland through the capsule, or enter at the hilum and 
break up into a fine-meshed capillary network, branches of which 
pass through the lymph sinuses. 

The lymph-glands act as filters for the lymphatic system and are 
important as a source of leucocytes. 

In what part of the intestinal tract is lymphoid tissue found ? 

At certain places in the walls of the ileum there are collections 
of solitary follicles, known as Peyer 's patches. 

Give the situation of the lymphatic glands of the thorax. 

1. Posterior mediastinal, a series of small granular masses on the 
course of the oesophagus. 

2. The bronchial, in the angle of the bifurcation of the trachea. 

3. Two long strings of lobules which extend on the sides of the 
inferior face of the trachea, from the base of the heart to near the 
first rib. 

Mention the location of the following lymphatic glands: posterior 
cervical, prescapular, posterior mediastinal, inguinal, popli- 
teal, precrural, iliac, axillary and bronchial. 
Posterior cervical, situated on the side of the terminal extrem- 
ity of the jugular, within the inferior border of the scalenus muscle, 
extends into the chest by passing beneath the axillary vessels and 
ascends to the inner face of the first rib. 

Prescapular, situated on the ascending branch of the inferior 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 71 

cervical artery, beneath the internal face of the mastoidohumeralis 
muscle and extends close to the attachment of the sternomaxillaris 
muscle. 

Posterior mediastinal (see preceding question). 

Inguinal, the deep inguinal situated beneath the crural aponeu- 
rosis and arch in the interstice between the adductor muscles of the 
leg, along with the iliac vessels. The superficial inguinal are located 
in front of the inguinal ring at the side of the sheath on the track of 
the subcutaneous abdominal artery. 

Popliteal, located behind the great sciatic nerve and gastroc- 
nemius muscle, between the biceps femoris and the semitendinosus 
muscles, and near the femoropopliteal artery. 

Precrural, located within the anterior border of the tensor fascia 
lata, on the course of the circumflex iliac artery. 

Iliac, situated in the triangular space between the two branches 
of the circumflex iliac artery. 

Axillary, beneath the anterior limb, inside the arm; one group 
is near the ulnar articulation, the other, behind the brachial vessels, 
near the common insertion of the teres major and latissimus dorsi 
muscles. 

Bronchial (see preceding question). 

State the approximate number of mesenteric lymph-glands. 
About thirty in number. 

Neurology 

The nervous system is divided into two great parts, the cerebro- 
spinal and the sympathetic. The cerebrospinal system consists of 
the brain, spinal cord, ganglia and nerves. The brain is the central 
portion of the nervous system and is situated in the cranial cavity ; 
the spinal cord is, in reality, a great extension of the brain through- 
out the length of the spinal canal, from which emerge, at numerous 
points, branches, nerves, upon which are noted enlargements, called 
ganglia. The sympathetic system will be described in answer to a 
question below. 

Name the membranes that cover the brain and describe the outer one. 

From within outward, pia mater, arachnoid and dura mater. 

The dura mater is a strong, fibrous membrane, adherent to the 
bony walls. It gives off prolongations into the brain, forms de- 
pressions for the venous sinuses and is prolonged on the nerves and 
spinal cord. 



72 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Name the principal parts of the brain. 

Cerebrum, cerebellum, the isthmus, and medulla oblongata. 

Describe the island of Reil. 

The island of Reil is a very small lobule of brain in the fissure 
of Sylvius, found in man but not in the horse. 

Describe the optic thalami. . 

The optic thalami are two masses of gray matter, placed above 
the crura cerebri; they are separated by a deep groove, and form 
the sides of the third ventricle. At their posterior border are found 
two projections, the external and internal geniculate bodies. 

Describe the cerebellum. 

The cerebellum is that part of the brain, situated behind and 
beneath the cerebrum, above the isthmus and separated from the 
cerebrum by a fold of the dura mater. 

It is globular in form and is divided by two fissures into three 
lobes, two lateral and a middle. The lateral lobes are convex and 
show many convolutions or depressions. The middle lobe is dis- 
posed in a vermicular manner, which gives rise to the names of the 
two divisions, anterior vermiform and superior vermiform 
processes. 

The structure is gray externally and white internally with a 
tree-like arrangement called the arbor vitm. 

Describe the corpora quadrigemina. 

These are four round eminences, placed in pairs, which lie 
above the cerebral peduncles. The two posterior, the smallest, are 
also named the tuber cula testes, and the anterior pair, the tubercula 
nates. The nates are gray and the testes are white. 

Describe the spinal cord, using a diagram. 

The spinal cord is the portion of the nervous system which is 
enclosed in the spinal canal from the occipital foramen to the upper 
third of the sacral canal. Its average weight in the horse is 10%' 
ounces. It is slightly flattened above and below, and has two enlarge- 
ments in its course, one between the fifth cervical and second dorsal 
vertebrae, the brachial bulb, the other, near the middle of the loins, 
the lumbar enlargement. 

The structure of the cord is, externally, white matter, internally, 
gray. The gray matter is arranged like two horns, the larger ends 
of which point down and out, but do not reach the surface, the 
smaller look upward and outward, reaching the surface. The two 
horns are connected by a transverse band (similar to the letter 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 73 

**H"), called the commissure, which shows in its middle the central 
canal of the cord. 

The cord is traversed throughout its length by two fissures, the 
superior of which is narrower and shallower than the inferior, which 
is only separated from the gray commissure by a white band, the 
white commissure. 

The white matter is divided on each side into three columns. The 
superior column lies between the superior fissure and the superior 
or sensory nerve root. The inferior, between the inferior fissure 
and the inferior or motor root. The lateral lies between the two. 
The cord is covered by membranes similar to the brain, viz., dura 
mater, arachnoid and pia mater. The posterior end of the cord 
is marked by a narrow prolongation, the flum terminate. 

DescriBe the spinal nerves. 

The spinal nerves emanate from the spinal cord and leave the 
vertebral canal by the intervertebral foramina to proceed to the 
various organs. They proceed from the lateral aspects of the cord 
by two orders of roots: one motor, the other sensitive. These two 
roots unite into a very short trunk in passing through the inter- 
vertebral foramen and this mixed nerve divides almost immediately 
into two terminal branches. On the superior root, before its union 
with the inferior, a ganglion is found. Passing out with the in- 
ferior root of the spinal nerve, but indistinguishable from it, is a 
branch of nerve known as the white ramus communicans which 
leaves the main trunk after the mixed nerve has been formed, and 
runs to a distinct system known as the sympathetic. 

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there in the horse? State the 

relative number in the cervical, dorsal, lumbar, sacral and 

coccygeal regions, respectively. 

There are 42 or 43 pairs of spinal nerves as follows: cervical, 

8 pairs; dorsal, 17 pairs; lumbar, 6 pairs; sacral, 5 pairs; and 

coccygeal, 6 to 7 pairs. 

Name the cranial nerves. 

Olfactory, optic, motor oculi, patheticum, trifacial, abducens, 
facial, auditory, glossopharyngeal, pneumogastric, spinal accessory 
and hypoglossal. 

Describe the first pair of cranial nerves. 

The olfactory nerves originate, superficially, in the olfactory 
lobe of the brain, deeply, from the corpus striatum and transverse 
fibres of the pons. Pass through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid 
bone and are widely distributed over the nasal septum and ethmoidal 



74 VETERINARY STATE BOARD • 

cells in the upper third of the nasal fossae. Function : preside ov^r 
the sense of smell. 

Give the origin and the distribution of the optic nerve. 

Origin : From the commissure and optic tracts which arise from 
the thalamus and corpora quadrigemina. 
Distribution : To the retina. 

Describe the third pair of cranial nerves, the oculomotor. 

Originates superficially from the crura near the interpedun- 
cular fissure, deeply, from the anterior border of the pons. Passes 
through the smallest suprasphenoidal foramen of the orbit. Dis- 
tributed to all the muscles of the eye except the external rectus, the 
great oblique and part of the posterior rectus, and by the ophthalmic 
ganglion to the iris. 

Give the origin and the distribution of the fourth pair of cranial nerves. 
The patheticum originates in the band of Reil, behind the cor- 
pora quadrigemina and, deeply, from the interior of the isthmus. 
It is distributed to the great oblique muscle of the eye. 

Describe the fifth pair of cranial nerves, the trifacial. 

This nerve originates by two roots, motor and sensory, in the 
•pons varolii. On the sensory branch, in the region of the occipito- 
sphenotemporal hiatus, is a large ganglion, the Gasserian, which 
gives rise to the three branches of the nerve, viz., the superior 
maxillary, the inferior maxillary and the ophthalmic. The motor 
root passes along, but outside of, the ganglion and unites with the 
fibres of the inferior maxillary branch. So, although the fifth pair 
is called a mixed nerve, in reality only the inferior maxillary branch 
is composed of sensory and motor fibres. 

The branches emerge from the cranial cavity as follows: the 
first branch (ophthalmic) passes through the smallest of the large 
suprasphenoidal foramina to the orbit and is distributed to the skin 
of the forehead and eyelids, lachrymal gland and nasal fossa. The 
second, superior maxillary, passes through the foramen rotundum 
to the orbit and along the infra-orbital canal, where it ends in small 
branches to the face and upper lip. It sends branches to the eyeball, 
palate, nose and teeth of the upper jaw. The third, inferior maxil- 
lary, passes through the foramen ovale to the temporomaxillary 
articulation and then passes downward to enter the inferior dental 
canal; it supplies the muscles of mastication and the teeth of the 
lower jaw. 

On the course of the fifth pair of nerves, the following ganglia 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 75 

from the sympathetic system are seen : the ophthalmic or ciliary, the 
sphenopalatine or Meckel 's, and the otic or Arnold 's. 

Describe the sixth pair of cranial nerves. 

The abduceus originates superficially from the medulla behind 
the pons and, deeply, from the inferior pyramid and lateral tract of 
the medulla. 

It leaves the cranial cavity with the ophthalmic branch of the 
fifth, and is distributed to the external rectus muscle of the eye. 

Describe the seventh pair of cranial nerves, the facial. 

Originates superficially from the medulla behind the pons and, 
deeply, in the floor of the fourth ventricle. It escapes from the 
cranial cavity through the internal auditory meatus with the eighth 
pair, enters the aqueduct of Fallopius, has the geniculate ganglion 
developed on it and passes out through the stylomastoid foramen to 
the muscles of the face, ears, lips, nostrils and eyelids. 

Branches : great petrossal, to Meckel 's ganglion ; small petrossal, 
to otic ganglion ; tympanitic, to stapedius ; chorda tympani, to tongue 
and mouth; muscular, to occipitostyloid, digastric, stylohyoid and 
cervical muscles ; auricular, to the ear and face. 

Describe the auditory nerve (eighth pair). 

Originates in the medulla, below the seventh pair. Leaves the 
cranial cavity with the seventh pair and is distributed to the internal 
ear by two branches, the cochlear and the vestibular. 

Describe the ninth pair of cranial nerves, glossopharyngeal. 

Originates in the medulla and more deeply in the floor of the 
fourth ventricle. Leaves the cranial cavity by the posterior fora- 
men lacerum and is distributed to the back part of the tongue, and 
pharynx. 

Branches: Jacobson^s nerve to the tympanum; filaments com- 
municating with the superior cervical ganglion; carotid and 
pharyngeal. 

Give the origin and the distribution of the pneumogastric nerve. 

The pneumogastric, vagus or tenth pair, originates in the 
medulla and passes through the posterior lacerated foramen to be 
distributed to the oesophagus, pharynx, lungs, bronchi, trachea, 
heart, stomach and intestines. Its principal branches are: 1, 
superior larjTigeal to the mucous membrane of the larynx and crico- 
thyroid muscle ; 2, inferior laryngeal to all the muscles of the larynx 
except the cricothyroid; 3, bronchial to the bronchi and lungs; 
4, oesophageal to the oesophagus, stomach, liver and solar plexus. 



76 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Describe the spinal accessory nerve. 

The eleventh pair of cranial nerves, spinal accessory, originate 
along the whole cervical region of the cord, and from the fourth 
ventricle. It enters the cranium through the foramen magnum 
and escapes through the foramen lacerum to be distributed to the 
muscles of the neck and thorax. It gives off the following branches : 
to the cervical sympathetic, sternomaxillaris, mastoidohumeralis, 
cervical and dorsal trapezius muscles and motor fibres to the vagus. 

Describe the hypoglossal or twelfth pair o£ cranial nerves. 

Originates in the medulla and leaves the cranium through the 
condyloid foramen to be distributed to the muscles of the tongue and 
depressor muscles of the larynx. 

Describe the formation of the brachial plexus. 

Formed from the inferior branches of the sixth, seventh and 
eighth cervical and first and second dorsal spinal nerves. 

Give the nerve supply of the extensors of the forearm. 
Radial. 

What is the nerve supply of the flexors of the forearm? 
Median. 

Describe the median nerve. 

The median nerve arises from the posterior part of the brachial 
plexus and a branch from the musculocutaneous. It passes down 
in front of the humeral artery, along the inner side of the radius to 
the lower one-third of the same, where it bifurcates into the external 
and internal plantar. 

It gives rise to the following branches: To the flexors of the 
forearm and subcutaneous region of the forearm; the plantars 
which give off the anterior, middle and posterior digitals at the 
fetlock and supply the phalangeal region. 

Give the origin and the distribution of the posterior digital nerve. 

See answer to preceding question. Originates from the plantars 
at the fetlock and is distributed to the podophyllous and osseous 
structures of the foot. 

Of what is the lumbosacral plexus formed? 

Last two lumbar and first three sacral spinal nerves. 

What nerve supplies the following named muscles of the hind limb: 
gastrocnemius, flexor pedis perforans and flexor pedis per- 
f oratus ? 
Branches of the great sciatic. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 77 

Give the nerve supply of the salivary glands. 

Parotid : from the facial and inferior maxillary nerves. 
Submaxillary: from the carotid plexus. 
Sublingual : from the lingual and carotid plexus. 

Give the nerve supply of the larynx. 

Inferior and superior laryngeal from the pneumogastric. 

Give the nerve supply of the spleen. 

Branches from the solar plexus. 

Give the nerve supply of the stomach. 

Pneumogastric and solar plexus. 

What is the nerve supply of the uterus? 

Branches from the small mesenteric and pelvic plexuses. 

Describe briefly the sympathetic nervous system. 

This extensive system, composed of nerves and ganglia, is de- 
rived from the spinal cord and brain. It consists of two long cords 
lying under the spinal column, from the head to the tail. From 
the great number of ganglia along its course, there arise very fine 
nerves which are distributed to the blood-vessels, viscera and glands. 
The system is divided into cephalic, cervical, dorsal, lumbar and 
sacral portions. 

Ganglia are distributed as follows: cephalic, three on the fifth 
nerve (see above) ; cervical region, two, superior and inferior caro- 
tid; dorsal, seventeen below the vertebrocostal articulations (most 
important is the solar plexus) ; lumbar, six on the psoas parvus 
muscle; sacral, four beneath the sacrum. 

The function of the sympathetic system may be summarized 
thus: 1, supplies the blood-vessels with constrictor and dilator 
fibres; 2, supplies the viscera with motor and inhibitory fibres; 
3, accelerator fibres to the heart; 4, dilator fibres for the pupil; 5, 
secretory fibres for sweat, salivary and sebaceous glands; 6, motor 
fibres to the muscles of the hair ; 7, trophic fibres which exercise an 
effect on the nutrition of a part. 

Digestive Organs 

Name the organs of prehension, deglutition and digestion. 

Prehension: lips, tongue and incisor teeth. 
Deglutition : hard palate, tongue, pharynx and oesophagus. 
Digestion: salivary glands, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas 
and teeth. 



3-3 
3-3 


1-1 

1-1 


3-3 
3-3 


3-3 
3-3' 


Total 40. 


0-0 

4-4 


0-0 
0-0 


3-3 
3-3 


3-3 
3-3' 


Total 32. 


3-3 
3-3 


1-1 
1-1 


3-3 
3-3 


3-3 
4-4 


Total 42. 



78 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Give the permanent dental formula of (a) the horse, (b) the ox, (c) 
the dog. 

(a) ^ 

(b) 

(c) 

Describe an incisor tooth. 

Pyramidal, flattened from before, backward, with a single fang. 
Three surfaces, anterior, indented by a slight longitudinal furrow, 
which is prolonged to the root ; a posterior face, rounded from side 
to side and concave from above downward, and two borders, of which 
the internal is always thicker than the external; last, a surface of 
friction, the table. 

In composition, there are three fundamental substances: the 
dentin envelops the pulp cavity, the enamel covers the dentin. The 
enamel is doubled in the external dental cavity, lining it throughout, 
and when the surface of friction is in wear, a ring of enamel sur- 
rounds that surface and an internal ring of the same surrounds the 
infundibulum. The first circle forms what is called the encircling 
enamel; the second, the central enamel. Over the enamel is a pro- 
tecting substance, the cementum or crusta petrosa, which disappears 
soon after the tooth becomes in wear. 

Give the general arrangement of dentin, enamel and cementum from 
without, inward, in the following teeth: (a) incisor, (b) 
canine, (c) molar. 

(a) Cementum, enamel and dentin. 

(b) Cement, enamel and dentin. 

(c) External cement, external enamel, dentin, internal enamel 
and internal cement. 

State the difference between the incisors of the horse and those of 
the ox. 

(See description of horse's incisor above.) 

In the ox, the incisors are eight in number, all in the lower jaw. 
They are not fixed in the alveoli, as in the horse, but have a certain 
degree of mobility. The root is more conical in shape, giving the 
tooth a shovel-like appearance, the root being the handle. On the 
middle of the internal face, is a conical eminence, the base of which 
widens and terminates near the free extremity of the tooth. As 
age and wear advance, the teeth seem to separate from one another^ 
and in youth they only touch by their extremities. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 79 

Des«:ribe the appearance of the incisors of the horse at the age of (a) 
5 years, (b) lo years. 

(a) In the lower jaw, the nippers are worn more or less com- 
pletely. The intermediates are on a level with the nippers and 
their posterior border is level with the anterior. The corners are 
lower than the intermediates. There is a notch on the posterior which 
is lower than the anterior border ; sometimes this notch is very deep 
and extends down on the posterior face of the tooth. The corners 
are fresh and well grown out. The dental arches form a regular 
semicircle from above, downward, and from one side to the other. 

(b) In the lower jaw, the nippers are rounded. The central 
enamel is round and small and very near the posterior border. The 
intermediates are nearly round, while the corners still remain oval. 
In profile, the arch of the upper and lower teeth from above, down- 
ward, becomes more angular. 

Give the dental formula of (a) a six-year-old mare, (b) a seven-year-old 
cow, (c) a one-year-old dog. 
At the ages stated, these animals would have all their permanent 
teeth. 

(a) 

Cb) ^ ^ ^ ^. 

(c) 

What modifications are seen in the upper and lower molars of the horse 
and how do these modifications affect decay? 
The inferior molars are somewhat longer and much more flat- 
tened than the superior. Their enamel is but a single organ and is 
not divided into internal and external parts as in the superior 
molars. In the superior, the two central rings of enamel completely 
enclose the infundibula. This arrangement renders the upper 
molars slightly more susceptible to decay because there is greater 
possibility of the enamel being broken and an opening for micro- 
organisms being produced, resulting in caries. 

Describe the tongue. 

The tongue is a fleshy organ, elongated anteroposteriorly, flat- 
tened on each side, and fixed to the os hyoides and inferior maxilla 
by the muscles forming the basis of its structure, or by the membrane 
covering it. It lies in the intermaxillary space, extending from the 
back part of the mouth to the incisor teeth, and rests on a kind of 
wide sling formed by the two mylohyoidean muscles. The anterior 



3-3 
3-3 


0-0 
0-0 


3-3 
3-3 


3-3 
3-3 


Total 36. 


0-0 
4-4 


0-0 
0-0 


3-3 
3-3 


3-3 
3-3 


Total 32. 


3-3 
3-3 


1-1 
1-1 


3-3 
3-3 


3-3 
4-4 


Total 42. 



80 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

extremity of the tongue, the free portion, is quite free froa the 
middle of the interdental space to the tip ; by its inferior face, it is 
fixed to the body of the inferior maxilla by a fold of mucous mem- 
brane, the f raenum linguae. 

The superior surface of the tongue is not smooth but is covered 
with innumerable papillae, which, according to their shape, are 
termed filiform, fungiform and calciform. 

The blood supply to the tongue is by the lingual and sublingual 
arteries and the nerve supply by the lingual, ninth and twelfth pairs. 

Function : concerned in prehension, mastication, deglutition and 
taste. 

Name the three principal salivary glands and the duct or ducts of each. 
Parotid, Steno's duct; submaxillary, Wharton's duct; sublin- 
gual, 15 or 20 ducts (of Rivinus) . 

Describe the pharynx, giving particular attention to its connection with 
the mouth, nose and ears. 
The pharynx is a membranous vestibule common to the digestive 
and air passages, situated behind the soft palate; attached above 
to the base of the cranium and below to the laryngeal apparatus. 

It communicates with the mouth through the isthmus of the 
fauces, with the nose through the posterior nares, and with the 
middle ear through the guttural pouch and eustachian tube. 

Describe the oesophagus and give its relations. 

The oesophagus is an elongated, muscular canal extending from 
the pharynx to the stomach. It is made up of superficial longi- 
tudinal and deep circular muscular fibres and is lined internally 
by mucous membrane. At its upper extremity it is comprised be- 
tween the guttural pouch and the posterior crico-arytenoid muscles. 
In the cervical region, superiorly, it lies between the trachea and the 
longus colli muscles, bordered on the side by the carotid artery, the 
great sympathetic, pneumogastric and inferior laryngeal nerves; 
inferiorly, it is related to the trachea, internally, the inferior sca- 
lenus muscle and the jugular vein, externally. In its thoracic por- 
tion, it lies along the trachea, passes above the left bronchus, to the 
right of the thoracic aorta, against the internal face of the lungs. 
Passing through the diaphragm, it is lodged in a fissure of the liver 
and terminates in the cardiac opening of the stomach. 

Name the organs contained in the abdominal cavity. 

Stomach, large and small intestines, liver, pancreas, spleen, kid- 
neys, ovaries and uterus. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 81 

Describe the stomach. 

The stomach is a muscular sac, situated in the diaphragmatic 
region between the oesophagus and the duodenum, in which the 
principal acts of digestion take place. It has a capacity of 3 to 31/2 
gallons and weighs from 3 to 4 pounds. It is elongated, often con- 
stricted in its middle, and presents an anterior and a posterior face, 
a great curvature below, to which the great omentum is attached, 
a lesser curvature above, to which the oesophagus and gastrohepatic 
ligament are attached. In the left extremity is an opening con- 
tinuous with the oesophagus, and the right extremity communicates 
with the duodenum through the pyloric orifice. 

Externally, the stomach is covered with a serous coat, the peri- 
toneum ; internally, it is lined with mucous membrane in which are 
innumerable peptic and mucous glands. The middle coat is mus- 
cular, the fibres of which run in various directions. 

Blood supply: gastric, splenic, pyloric, oesophageal, right and 
left gastro-epiploic vessels. 

Nerves : pneumogastric and solar plexus. 

Give the relative capacity of the gastric cavities and intestines in (a) 
horse, (b) the ox, (c) the sheep, (d) the pig, (e) the dog. 

(a) Stomach small, intestines large. 

(b) Stomach large, intestines small. 

(c) Stomach large, intestines smaU. 

(d) Stomach small, intestines large. 

(e) Stomach small, intestines large. 

Describe the rumen of the ox. 

The rumen is a large reservoir which occupies nearly three- 
fourths of the abdominal cavity. It has a capacity of 45 to 50 
gallons. Elongated from before, behind, it presents two surfaces, 
superior and inferior, an anterior and posterior extremity and a 
right and left border. 

By its superior surface, it is in contact with the intestines and 
its opposite face lies on the inferior abdominal wall. Its left border, 
supporting the spleen, extends to the highest part of the flank and 
sublumbar region. The right border lies against the abomasum. 
The anterior extremity lies close to the diaphragm and receives the 
insertion of the oesophagus. The posterior extremity occupies the 
entrance to the pelvic cavity. Interiorly, the rumen is divided by 
two septa, muscular pillars, into a right and left sac. 

The rumen has three coats: outer serous, middle muscular and 
inner mucous. The mucous coat has innumerable papillae similar 
6 



82 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

to those on tlie tongue. Two openings, one into the oesophagus, the 
other into the reticulum, are close together. 

Describe the internal surface of the recticulum of the ox. 

It is divided by ridges of the mucous membrane into polyhedral 
cells which look like honeycomb. In the centres of the cells and 
deeply situated are conical papillae. 

Name some of the synon3mis for the omasum and give the reason for 
these names. 
Manyplus, manyplies, many-leaves and psalterium. 
So named because of the peculiar arrangement of the mucous 
membrane, which is disposed into 25 to 30 unequally developed 
leaves, arranged longitudinally, adherent to the great curvature and 
free on the border turned toward the lesser curvature. This arrange- 
ment gives the opened organ an appearance not unlike that of an 
open book. 

Describe the arrangement of the mucous membrane in the first, second, 
third and fourth stomachs of the ox. 
See answers to three preceding questions. The mucous mem- 
brane of the fourth stomach is practically the same as in the horse, 
q.v. 

Give the length of the intestines of (a) the horse, (b) the cow, (c) the 
dog. 

(a) 100 feet; (b) 180 feet; (c) 14 feet. 

Describe the small intestine and name its divisions. 

The small intestine, a tube 75 feet in length, begins at the pyloric 
orifice of the stomach, turns transversely to the left, forms numerous 
folds, being suspended in the mesentery (a fold of the peritoneum), 
and terminates in the caecum in the right hypochondriac region. The 
diameter of the tube is variable in different portions and in all por- 
tions depends upon the contraction of the muscular tunic, but aver- 
ages 1 to 1% inches. 

Three coats: outer serous, middle muscular, and inner mucous. 
Blood supply by the great mesenteric and coeliac axis. Nerves from 
the solar plexus. 

Divisions : duodenum, jejunum and ileum. 

Describe the double (fixed) colon. 

The double colon begins at the caecum, passes forward, then 
bends backward and to the left, forming the suprasternal curvature, 
lying above the sternum, then backward and turning again to form 
the pelvic flexure, then runs forward to the diaphragm, forming 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 83 

tlie diaphragmatic flexure, then passes back with the first portion 
to terminate in the small (floating) colon. 

Throughout its length, it is traversed by from 1 to 4 longitudinal, 
muscular bands which hold the transverse folds in position. It is 
made up of three coats: outer serous, middle muscular and inner 
mucous. Length, 10-13 feet. Capacity, 18 gallons. Blood supply, 
two colic arteries. Nerves, sympathetic. 

What is the difference between the caecum of the horse and that of 
the ox? 

In the horse, there are four longitudinal muscular bands which 
are absent in the ox, hence in the latter the bulgings seen in the 
horse do not appear. 

Describe the ileocaecal valve and give its function. 

It is formed by the projection of the ileum into the caecum and 
is formed by a circular mucous fold, strengthened externally by 
muscular fibres. Situated on the inferior face of the caecum. 

Function : by acting as a sort of check- valve, probably aids the 
onward movements of the intestinal contents. 

What is the capacity of the caecum? 
Seven and a half gallons. 

Describe the liver. 

The liver is a glandular viscus, situated in the abdominal cavity 
to the right of the diaphragmatic region. Its average weight is 
eleven pounds. Flattened before and behind and indented at its 
borders, the organ is divided into three principal lobes and presents 
two surfaces and a border for study. 

The anterior face, applied against the diaphragm, is channelled 
by a deep fissure for the posterior cava. The posterior surface also 
has a fissure for the passage of the portal vein and vessels. In the 
superior border is a notch for the oesophagus. Several smaller fis- 
sures are observed, one dividing the right and left lobes and small 
ones dividing the middle lobe into lobules. 

The four lobes are : left (the largest) , right, spigelian or caudate, 
and middle. 

The liver is held in place by five ligaments, viz. : 

1. Anterior or coronary, from the fissure for the cava to the 
phrenic centre. 

2. One from the left lobe to the sides of the oesophageal orifice. 

3. One from the right lobe to the sublumbar wall. 

4. Broad or suspensory, from the middle lobe to the inferior 
abdominal wall and lower part of the diaphragm. 



84 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

5. Round, a fetal remnant, from the middle lobe to the umbilicus. 
The external serous coat covers the true capsule (Griisson's) which 
is of fibrous tissue. 

Hepatic ducts, originating within the liver parenchyma, unite 
to form the ductus choledochus, or great bile duct, which empties 
into the duodenum. 

Blood supply : functional, portal vein ; nutritive, hepatic artery. 

Nerve supply: sympathetic, vagus and phrenic. 

Name the lobes of the liver. 

Three principal lobes are right, left and middle. The right lobe 
has a small secondary lobe attached to it, the lobus Spigelii, or 
caudate lobe. 

Describe and give the relations o£ the pancreas. 

This organ, sometimes called the abdominal salivary gland, be- 
cause of its resemblance to the salivary glands in structure, is 
situated in the sublumbar region, across the aorta and post cava, in 
front of the kidneys and behind the liver and stomach. Its weight 
is seventeen ounces. In form, it is elongated, triangular and curved 
on itself. It has two surfaces, superior and inferior, two borders, 
anterior and posterior, and two extremities, a right or head and 
a left or tail. The posterior border is notched for the portal vein 
to pass through. 

Two ducts, duct of Wirsung, the principal, runs along the an- 
terior border from the left to the right side and opens into the 
duodenum in common with the bile duct; an accessory duct opens 
alone after receiving several branches. 

Blood supply: hepatic and great mesenteric. 

Nerve supply : solar plexus. 

State the difference in the relation of the biliary and pancreatic ducts 
in (a) the horse, (b) the ox, (c) the sheep, (d) the goat, 
and (e) the pig. 

(a) Open in common into the duodenum. 

(b) Two separate openings into the duodenum. 

(c) Open in common into the duodenum. 

(d) Open in common into the duodenum. 

(e) Two separate openings into the duodenum. 

Describe the peritoneum and give its relation. 

The peritoneum is a serous membrane composed of a parietal 
and a visceral layer which together form a closed sac, so arranged 
that the organs contained in the abdominal cavity are enveloped by, 
but are external to, it. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 85 

In its various folds and duplicatures, it forms ligaments, mesen- 
teries and omenta as follows : falciform ligament from the umbilicus 
to the middle lobe of the liver; the common ligament of the liver 
which surrounds the posterior vena cava ; the cardiac ligament that 
envelops the termination of the oesophagus ; the gastrohepatic liga- 
ment or omentum attaches the stomach to the posterior fissure of the 
liver and separates at the lesser curvature of the stomach to envelop 
the same, joining again at its greater curvature. This fold is 
called the great omentum and also the gastrocolic omentum, because 
by its posterior border it is extended around the termination of the 
large colon. A reflection from the stomach to the spleen is called 
the gastrosplenic omentum. Behind the stomach, there is a small 
opening in the great omentum, which communicates with the peri- 
toneal cavity, called the foramen of Winslow. Posteriorly, the 
great omentum is continued as the mesentery proper, being reflected 
over the small and large intestines, forming their mesenteries, the 
ligaments of the bladder, broad ligaments of the uterus, and then 
from the rectum and front of the bladder is reflected to the superior 
and inferior abdominal wall, forming the parietal layers. The in- 
ferior parietal layer continues forward, descends into the scrotum 
through the inguinal canal to envelop the testicles, and is continued 
forward to form the suspensory ligament of the liver. The superior 
parietal layer passes beneath the kidney, forms the mesenteries and 
is continued to the diaphragm. 

Eespiratory Organs 
Name the sinuses of the head. 

The sinuses of the head are arranged in pairs, five on each side as 
follows; the frontal, supermaxillary, sphenoidal, ethmoidal and 
inferior maxillary. 

Compare the frontal sinus of the ox with that of the horse as regards 
position, structure and size. 
In the ox, the frontal sinuses are prolonged into the horn cores 
and into the parietal and occipital bones. They envelop the anterior 
and superior part of the cranium and form a double wall to this 
cavity. They are, therefore, much larger and situated more supe- 
riorly than in the horse. In the horse, the sinus communicates with 
the superior maxillary sinus by a vast opening in the thin bony 
partition, but in the ox, no such communication exists. 

Describe the larynx. 

The larynx is a cartilaginous box, situated in the intermaxillary 
space between the two corona of the os hyoides and fixed to these 



86 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

appendages by one of its constituent pieces, the thyroid cartilage. 
Its anterior opening is at the bottom of the pharynx, its posterior 
is continuous with the trachea. 

In structure, it is comprised of five cartilages, viz., three single, 
cricoid, thyroid and epiglottis, and one pair, the arytenoids. The 
muscles which either move the whole organ or its cartilages upon 
one another are: three extrinsic, the sternothyroideus, hyothy- 
roideus and the hyo-epiglottideus ; five intrinsic, cricothyroid, pos- 
terior crico-arytenoideus, lateral crico-arytenoid, thyro-arytenoid 
and arytenoideus. All of these muscles are pairs, except the hyo- 
epiglottideus and arytenoideus. 

Internally, the larynx is lined with mucous membrane and is 
marked on each side by the elastic structure known as the vocal 
cords. 

Blood supply: laryngeal arteries. 

Nerve supply: superior and inferior laryngeal. 

Function : an air passage and organ of phonation. 

Name the cartilages of the larynx. 

See answer to preceding question. 

Describe the guttural pouch and give its function. 

Two in number, one on each side, the guttural pouches are elon- 
gated cavities, communicating with the pharynx and lying on its 
sides. In reality, a dilatation of the eustachian tube, these two 
pouches lie against each other in the median plane ; externally, they 
are related to the carotid artery and parotid gland. Before and 
behind, they extend from the anterior part of the pharynx to the 
inferior face of the atlas. Capacity, about three-quarters of a pint. 
Function : probably connected with hearing and phonation in some 
way. 

Describe the trachea and give its relations. 

The trachea is a long, flexible, elastic, cylindrical tube, composed 
of a series of about fifty incomplete cartilaginous rings that succeed 
the cricoid cartilage of the larynx and terminate above the base of 
the heart by bifurcating into the two bronchi. The rings are united 
by fibrous tissue. 

Relations : In its cervical portion, surrounded by muscles of this 
region — sternohyoid and sternothyroid, in front; the sternomaxil- 
laris muscles are situated in front in the inferior part but on the 
sides near their termination; the subscapulohyoideii are placed 
above and in the middle of the lateral parts ; the scaleni are below 
and at the sides ; the longus colli, behind. The oesophagus descends 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 87 

at first in the middle of the posterior face, then to the left side 
of the trachea. The carotid arteries, the pneumogastric, great sym- 
pathetic and recurrent nerves pass along both sides of the tube. 

In the thoracic portion, the trachea is related superiorly to the 
longus colli muscle and the oesophagus ; below to the brachial vessels, 
the anterior aorta, anterior vena cava, the cardiac and recurrent 
nerves, and to the left auricle of the heart ; laterally it is in contact 
with the inferior cervical ganglia of the great sympathetic, the 
vertebral vessels and the two layers of the anterior mediastinum, 
vena azygos, aorta and thoracic duct. 

Describe the thoracic cavity. Name the organs that are contained in 
this cavity. 

The thoracic cavity is a bony cage, representing a hollow cone 
placed horizontally, depressed on its sides, apex forward and base 
formed by the diaphragm, posteriorly. 

Boundaries : in front, the first ribs and longus colli muscle ; be- 
hind, the diaphragm ; superiorly, the vertebrae, ribs and longus colli 
muscle; inferiorly, the sternum, costal cartilages and the triangu- 
laris sterni muscle ; laterally, the ribs and deep intercostal muscles. 
Its internal face is covered with a serous membrane, the pleura. 

It contains the following organs : heart and great vessels, lungs, 
trachea, oesophagus, thoracic duct and lymphatic glands. 

Function: Receptacle for the contained organs; its movements 
are of primary importance in the act of respiration. 

Compare the thoracic cavity of the horse with that of the ox. 

In the ox, the thorax is not so long, particularly in its superior 
part, as in the horse, because the diaphragm is situated less obliquely 
and its attachment to the ribs is more anterior. Its total capacity 
is less than in the horse. 

Give the number of pulmonary lobes in (a) the horse, (b) the ox, 
(c) the sheep, (d) the pig, (e) the dog. 

(a) 5; (b) 6; (C) 6; (d) 6;'(e) 7. 

Describe the lungs of the horse. 

The lungs, the essential organs of respiration, are situated in the 
thoracic cavity, surrounding the heart, and enveloped by a serous 
membrane, the pleura. 

Divided into two lateral halves, the lungs are considered as two 
parts, right and left, which, in contour, correspond to the thoracic 
cavity which they practically fill. Each half is cone-shaped and 
has: an external face lying against the ribs; an internal face, 
forming the side of the mediastinum which presents an excavation 



88 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

in which the heart is lodged, and behind this is the root of the lung, 
formed by the bronchi, blood-vessels and nerves entering the struc- 
ture, also a fold of the pleura, ligamentum latum pulmonalis, which 
is attached to the mediastinum and posterior face of the diaphragm ; 
a base or diaphragmatic face, concave and in contact with the dia- 
phragm, showing a notch for the posterior vena cava; an apex or 
summit, situated behind the first rib, forms the anterior lobe; a 
superior border, thick and convex, rests in the vertebracostal chan- 
nel or concavity ; an inferior, shorter and thinner, is notched deeply 
for the heart. 

The right lung has three lobes, an anterior, middle and posterior ; 
the left, two, an anterior and posterior. 

The lung substance is pink-colored, soft, spongy and elastic tis- 
sue; it is divided into lobules which are further subdivided into 
alveoli and air-cells that communicate with bronchioles, the sub- 
divisions of bronchii. 

Blood supply: nutrient, bronchial arteries; functional, pul- 
monary arteries. Nerve supply: pneumogastric and sympathetic. 

Describe the different reflections of the pleura and state the different 
structures to which they are respectively applied. 

1. Costal pleura is applied to the internal face of the ribs and 
internal intercostal muscles. 

2. Diaphragmatic pleura, a continuation of the costal, is adher- 
ent to the diaphragm. 

3. Mediastinal pleura separates the two lateral halves of the 
lungs. It is applied against the internal face of each half and com- 
prises between its two layers the heart. The portion in front of the 
heart is called the anterior mediastinum, and that behind, the pos- 
terior mediastinum. 

The anterior mediastinum contains the trachea, oesophagus, an- 
terior aorta and its divisions, anterior vena cava, thoracic duct, and 
the cardiac, pneumogastric, recurrent and phrenic nerves. In the 
foetus and very young animals, it also contains the thymus glands. 

The posterior mediastinum is traversed by the posterior aorta, 
vena azygos, thoracic duct, oesophagus and nerves. 

4. Pulmonary or visceral pleura, a continuation of the medias- 
tinal, completely envelops the lung-tissue proper. 

Give the relative thickness of the mediastinum in horses and in cattle, 
and state how this affects conditions in unilateral pleurisy. 
In its inferior part, the posterior mediastinum of the horse is 
; . very thin and perforated by small openings ; whereas, in cattle, it is 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 89 

not open but is thick and solid there as elsewhere. A case of unilat- 
eral pleurisy in the horse tends to become bilateral because the 
effusion, and hence the infection, can readily pass from one side to 
the other. In cattle, localization of the disease in one side is 
possible. 

Urinary Organs 
Describe the kidney. 

The kidneys, two in number, are situated in the right and left 
sublumbar region, against the psoas muscles, usually imbedded in 
fat, and supported beneath by the peritoneum. The right kidney 
is heart-shaped and more anterior than the left, which is bean- 
shaped. Each kidney has a superior and inferior flattened surface, 
an external convex border and an internal concave one which is 
deeply notched, the hilum. In the hilum, the blood-vessels, nerves 
and beginning of the ureter are lodged. Inside, at the hilum, is a 
cavity, the pelvis, into which the uriniferous tubules empty and 
which is the beginning of the ureter. 

The kidney is encapsulated by a fibrous coat which sends pro- 
longations into its substance. The tissue proper of the kidney is 
divided into an external or cortical layer and an internal or medul- 
lary layer. The cortical layer contains the malpighian corpuscles 
and the medullary layer contains the uriniferous tubules. 

Blood supply: renal artery. 

Nerve supply: branches from the solar plexus. 

Function : secretion of urine. 

Compare the kidney of the horse with that of the ox. 

In the ox, the kidneys are more elongated from before to behind, 
and are divided into 15 to 20 lobules, the structures of which are 
comported like so many separate kidneys. 

Describe the ureters. 

The ureters, two in number, are membranous canals, beginning 
at the pelvis of the kidney and running backward and downward to 
the upper face of the bladder, which they enter in an oblique direc- 
tion. Size, about ^ inch in diameter. Structure consists of an 
external fibrous coat, a middle muscular and an internal mucous. 

Function : to convey urine from the kidneys to the bladder. 

Describe the urinary bladder. 

The bladder is a muscular bag, situated in the inferior part of 
the pelvic cavity, and has three openings, viz., the openings of the 
two ureters and the beginning of the urethra. Its structure is 



90 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

principally muscular tissue and is lined with mucous membrane 
made up of stratified epithelium. Its anterior half is covered with 
peritoneum. Related above to the uterus and vagina in the female, 
and to the seminal vesicles and rectum in the male. 

Blood supply: internal pudic and umbilical arteries. 

Nerve supply : pelvic plexus. 

Function: receptacle for urine until conditions are satisfactory 
for its expulsion. 

Compare the urethra of the horse with that of the ox. 

In the ox, the urethra conforms with the bend of the penis in 
front of the pubis, by making an S-shaped curve. Its diameter 
diminishes from its commencement to its termination. The latter 
is not prolonged by an urethral tube, as in the horse. Near the 
ischial arch, the urethra of the ox shows a valve which covers a 
cul-de-sac about one inch deep. This is not present in the horse. 
The walls of the urethra in the ox are thicker than in the horse 
and are provided with a sphincter muscle and erectile tissue. 

What is the length of the urethra in the mare? 
It is very short, less than one inch. 

Sexual Organs 

Describe the ovaries of the mare and state how they differ from those 
of the cow. 

The ovaries, two in number, situated in the right and left sub- 
lumbar regions, are small, ovoid bodies with a deep notch or hilus on 
their upper surface, which gives attachment to the pavilion of the 
oviduct. Each ovary floats at the anterior border of the broad liga- 
ment and is attached to the uterus by vessels and the utero-ovarian 
ligament. Externally, they are covered by serous membrane, under- 
neath which is the tunica albuginea, a fibrous covering. 

In the cow, the ovaries are relatively much smaller than in the 
mare, but in form and structure are the same. 

Describe the uterus of the mare. Give distinctive features of the 
uterus of the cow and bitch. 

The uterus of the mare is a hollow, muscular sac, situated in the 
abdominal cavity in the sublumbar region. Its posterior extremity 
extends to or within the anterior opening of the pelvic cavity. 
It is comprised of a body, constituting the greater bulk, which is 
continued anteriorly by a slight bifurcation into the two cornua. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 91 

Posteriorly, it is separated from the vagina by a constriction, the 
cervix or neck. 

Relations: Above, to the rectum; below, with the bladder; an- 
teriorly and laterally with the intestines ; behind, with the vagina. 

Attachments: Two broad ligaments, descending from the sub- 
lumbar region to the sides of the uterus and cornua ; two rudimen- 
tary, round ligaments, from the sides of the uterus to the upper 
inguinal ring. 

Openings : One small opening in each cornua, from the oviducts ; 
OS uteri, opening into the vagina. 

Structure: Outer serous coat, middle muscular, and inner 
mucous. 

Blood supply : Uterine and utero-ovarian vessels. 

Nerve supply: Mesenteric and pelvic plexuses. 

Function : The sac in which the embryo is developed. 

In the cow, the concave curvature of the cornua looks down- 
ward, instead of upward, as in the mare. The body is shorter and 
narrower and the cornua are thinner and more tapering than in the 
mare. The interior is studded with numerous tubercles, cotyledons. 
The cervix is longer and the muscular coat thicker. 

In the bitch, the body of the uterus is short and the cornua are 
very long and folded, floating amongst the intestines. Its cervix 
projects into the vagina and is even more voluminous than the body. 

Mention the ligaments of the uterus. 

Broad ligament, round ligament, and utero-ovarian ligament. 

Describe the vagina. 

The vagina is a long, membranous canal, situated in the pelvic 
cavity, succeeding the uterus and terminating in the vulva. It is 
made up of an inner mucous coat, a middle muscular, and its an- 
terior part is covered with peritoneum. It is related above with the 
rectum; laterally, with the ureters and connective tissue; below 
with the bladder. 

Blood supply : Internal pudic artery. 

Nerve supply: Pelvic plexus. 

Function : Copulation and passage of the foetus. 

Describe the mammary gland of the cow. 

The mammary gland of the cow, situated in the inguinal region, 
is made up of two lateral halves, each of which is composed of two 
distinct glands. The whole mass is enclosed by a fibrous capsule. 



92 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

In the centre of each quarter is a prolongation, the teat or nipple, 
which is pierced at its extremity by a small orifice, the opening of 
the teat duct. The teat duct or canal traverses the teat and opens 
superiorly into the galactophorus sinus or reservoir at the base 
of the teat. 

Externally, the organ is covered with skin which, together with 
ligamentous, elastic bands attached to the abdominal tunic, fixes it 
in position, Internally, the organ is made up of glandular, adipose 
and connective tissue. 

Blood supply: External pudic. 

Nerve supply : First lumbar pair. 

Describe the mammary glands of the bitch. 

The mammary glands of the bitch are ten in number, five on each 
side, situated along the ventral surface of the body from the inguinal 
to the axillary region. Each teat has from eight to ten orifices. 

Describe the genital organs of the cow. 

The genital organs of the cow include the ovaries, Fallopian tubes, 
uterus, vagina and mammary gland. For description of same, see 
preceding questions. 

Name the coverings of the testicles. 

From without, inward : scrotum, dartos, cremaster, fibrous tunic 
and tunica vaginalis. 

Of what structures is the spermatic cord composed? 

Vas deferens, spermatic artery, spermatic vein, nerves of sym- 
pathetic origin, cremaster muscle and peritoneum. 

Define the following : epididymis, vas deferens, globus major, vesiculae 
seminales, prostate gland, clitoris and vulva. 

Epididymis is an elongated duct, placed against the upper bor- 
der and outside of the testicle, arising from the vas efferentia and 
also called the head of the epididymis. 

Vas deferens is an elongated canal, beginning at the epididymis 
and ending at the seminal vesicles, through which spermatozoa pass. 

Globus major is the enlarged anterior part of the epididymis; 
also called the head of the epididymis. 

Vesiculae seminales are two elongated pouches in which the semen 
is stored, situated above the neck of the bladder. 

The prostate gland is situated at the commencement of the 
urethra around the neck of the bladder. It secretes a viscid fluid, 
which it pours forth into the urethra through several orifices. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 93 

The clitoris is a small body, two to three inches long, situated 
in the inferior commissure of the vulva. It is composed of erectile 
tissue. 

The vulva is the slit-like orifice of the female genitalia and is 
situated in the perineal region below the anus. 

Organs of Special Sense 
Describe the eyeball. 

The eyeball, which lies in the fat of the orbit, is a spherical- 
shaped shell, consisting of three tunics surrounding the humors. 
It is slightly bulged in front (the cornea), making the antero- 
posterior, the longest diameter. 

The tunics of the eye are, outer sclerotic and cornea, middle 
choroid and iris, and inner retina. 

The sclerotic is a white, dense membrane, forming about four- 
fifths of the external shell, into which the muscles are inserted. It 
is continued in front as the cornea, a transparent membrane which 
constitutes the remaining one-fifth of the outer tunic. Posteriorly, 
the sclera has an opening for the passage of the optic and ciliary 
nerves and the central artery. 

The choroid, the middle layer, is a thin, brownish, vascular 
membrane. It is continued anteriorly as the iris, a circular curtain 
with a central opening, the pupil. This curtain is governed by the 
ciliary muscle which unites the iris to the sclera. 

The retina, or internal layer, is the thinnest and most delicate. 
It is the expansion of the optic nerve and adheres closely to the 
choroid, ending anteriorly in a number of folds, the zone of Zinn. 
Although very thin, the retina is composed of connective tissue and 
nerve elements, arranged in nine or ten superposed layers. 

The crystalline lens is a double convex lens of concentric layers, 
with an external capsule. It is situated in the anterior one-third of 
the eye, behind the pupil. Back of the lens, filling the space bounded 
by the retina, is a gelatinous fluid, the vitreous humor, and anterior 
to the lens is the aqueous humor, which entirely fills the anterior 
and posterior chamber, the space between the cornea, pupil and iris. 

The eyeball is freely movable in various directions, the move- 
ments being controlled by seven muscles : five recti and two oblique, 
all of which attach to the sclera. 

Describe the cornea. 

The cornea is a transparent membrane which constitutes the 
anterior one-fifth of the outer covering of the eyeball. It is shaped 
like a watch glass with its convexity forward, and is composed of 



94 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

three layers. The anterior layer is epithelial in character and is a 
continuation of the conjunctiva. The middle is composed of con- 
nective tissue and the internal layer, elastic in structure, is called 
Descemet's membrane. 

Name the tunics of the eyeball. Describe one. 

See answer to preceding questions. 

Describe the membrana nictitans and give its use. 

The membrana nictitans, also called the third eyelid, is placed at 
the greater angle of the eye, whence it extends over the eyeball to 
remove foreign bodies from the cornea. It is made up of fibro- 
cartilage, triangular in shape, thick anteriorly and thick at its base, 
where it is continued by an adipose cushion which is insinuated be- 
tween the muscles of the eye. It moves, almost instantaneously and 
in a mechanical manner, over the eye, whenever the eyeball is 
retracted in the orbit. 

Describe the lachrymal apparatus of the horse and compare it v^ith that 
of the ox. 

The lachrymal apparatus consists of the lachrymal gland, puncta 
lachrymalia, lachrymal sac and lachrymal canal. 

The lachrymal gland is conglomerate, situated between the orbi- 
tal process and the upper part of the eyeball. It secretes the tears 
which empty on the inner surface of the upper lid. After lubri- 
cating the cornea and conjunctiva, the excess of tears enter the 
puncta lachrymalia, two small canals in the upper and lower lids, 
which carry the tears into the lachrymal sac, a small reservoir, 
the beginning of the lachrymal canal. The latter runs down in the 
lachrymal bone as a membranous canal, ending on the upper side of 
the nostril. 

In the ox, the lachrymal gland is much more voluminous than 
in the horse ; it has two large and several small ducts, and the nasal 
opening is situated higher in the nostril than in the hoKse. 

Describe the humors of the eye. 

The vitreous humor occupies all the cavity of the eye, behind the 
lens, surrounded by the retina. It is a colorless, transparent, jelly- 
like tissue which concurs in refracting the rays of light and at the 
same time acts as a supporting substance by maintaining the 
rotundity of the eyeball. 

The aqueous humor is more fluid than the vitreous, containing 
only 2 per cent, solids. It occupies the anterior and posterior cham- 
ber of the eye in front of the lens and is secreted by Descemet's 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 95 

membrane. It serves to maintain the convexity of the cornea and 
assists in refracting the rays of light. 

Describe the Eustachian tube and state its function. 

The Eustachian tube is a fibrocartilaginous canal, about four 
inches long, extending from the middle ear to the pharynx. Its 
upper orifice is narrow, but the inferior is widened by a great slit, 
the borders of which are cartilaginous in structure. Its inferior 
border is cleft, allowing the mucous membrane to escape in the form 
of a large sac, known as the guttural pouch. It is bordered by the 
stylopharyngeus muscle. 

Function : maintains the equilibrium of air within the cavity of 
the tympanum. 

Describe the membrana tympani. 

The membrani tympani, or ear-drum, is a thin membrane which 
separates the middle ear from the auditory canal ; oval in shape and 
is attached by its circumference to a bony frame, the tjnnpanitic 
circle. Its inner face is slightly convex and is adherent to the 
handle of the malleus. Although very thin, it consists of three 
layers, a middle fibrous and muscular, an external of skin, and an 
internal of mucous membrane. 

The function of this drum-like membrane is to receive the vibra- 
tions of the sound waves and transmit them to the internal ear. 

Skin, Hair and Hoof 

Name the appendages of the skin. 

Hair, sweat-glands, sebaceous glands and horny parts (chest- 
nut, ergot and hoof and, in ruminants, horns). 

Describe the different structures that make up the elastic cushion of 
the heel. 

These consist of two fibroeartilages and the plantar cushion. 

The cartilages, two in number, are flattened plates, shaped like 
an oblique-angled parallelogram. They are attached in front to 
the anterior lateral ligament, behind to the basilar and retrossal 
processes and plantar cushion ; they have a thin upper border and 
a thick lower. The upper border is notched for the passage of 
vessels and nerves. 

The plantar cushion is a wedge-shaped mass, situated between 
the lateral cartilages, the perforans tendon and the lower part of the 
hoof. Superiorly, it lies against the expansion of the perforans 
tendon and is attached by ligamentous bands to the ergot, meta- 
carpus and OS pedis. Inferiorly, it is covered by the keratogenous 



96 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

membrane and presents at its middle the pyramidal body which 
corresponds to the frog. Its base terminates in two lateral masses, 
the bulbs of the plantar cushion. Its summit attaches to the plantar 
surface of the os pedis and on each side it is attached to the lateral 
cartilages. In structure, it is composed of fibrous, elastic and adi- 
pose tissue, and contains vessels and nerves. 

Describe the coronary cushion. 

The coronary cushion is the matrix of the wall of the hoof. It 
is lodged in a cavity at the upper border of this horny case. Its 
inferior border is separated from the upper extremity of the laminae 
by a white ring. Its superior border is limited by the perioplic ring. 
The extremities are narrow and end in the velvety tissue of the 
plantar cushion. In structure it is a modified sldn made up of a 
fibrous framework. 

What is the keratogenous membrane? 

This is the secreting structure of the horny foot. It envelops 
the extremity of the digit and is covered by the hoof. It consists 
of the coronary cushion (see preceding question), velvety and 1am- 
inal tissue. The velvety tissue covers the plantar surface of the os 
pedis and plantar cushion. The laminal tissue consists of 500 to 600 
leaves, on the front and sides of the os pedis, which dovetail with the 
leaves on the inside of the hoof wall. 

Describe minutely the mode of connection of the hoof wall with the 
pedal bone and state how the weight of the animal is sup- 
ported by the hoof. 
The OS pedis is covered on the front and side by the laminal tissue 
(see preceding question) . This tissue consists of ^yo to six hundred 
parallel leaves, running from above, downward. On the inner side 
of the hoof wall, there are analogous leaves, keraphyllous tissue, 
which dovetail with these. 

The weight of the body is supported by the hoof wall and bars 
through the intimate union of the horny and sensitive laminae. The 
sole of the foot is slightly convex upward, thus making an arch-like 
support. The frog, through the medium of the plantar cushion and 
lateral cartilages, receives a share of the weight and the wall the 
balance. 

Ductless Glands 

Mention the ductless glands and state where they are located. 

Spleen, adrenals, pituitary gland, thyroid and thymus. 
The adrenals, two in number, lie on the under and inner side of 
the kidneys, in front of the hilus. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 97 

The spleen is situated in the diaphragmatic and left hypochon- 
driac regions, and suspended from the sublumbar. 

The pituitary gland is situated near the third ventricle of the 
brain, being attached to the interpeduncular fissure by the pituitary 
stem. 

The thyroid gland lies in the neck beside the first two tracheal 
rings. 

The thymus lies under the lower face of the trachea, partly with- 
out and partly within the chest in the foetus and very young animals. 

Describe the spleen* 

The spleen is a falciform-shaped organ, situated in the dia- 
phragmatic and left hyponchondriac region. It has an external 
convex and an internal concave face ; a convex posterior border and 
a concave and sharp anterior border. The superior extremity, the 
base, is broad, and the inferior extremity is pointed. It is held in 
position by a suspensory ligament from the sublumbar region and 
kidney to its base, and the gastrosplenic omentum which envelops 
the whole organ. 

It is covered with peritoneum and hats a thick, strong, fibrous 
coat which sends prolongations, or trabeculae, into the interior. The 
tissue of the spleen is made up of pulp, a reddish material, com- 
posed of pigment, broken-down corpuscles and Malpighian cor- 
puscles, small rounded bodies of lymphoid structure which are 
covered by the outer tunic of the small arteries. 

Blood supply: Splenic artery. 

Nerve supply : Solar plexus. 

State the difference between the spleen of the horse and that of the ox. 

(See answer to preceding question.) 

In the ox, the spleen is not supported by the great omentum, 
but adheres to the left side of the rumen and diaphragm. It is not 
falciform, and the breadth is the same throughout its extent. 

Apart from the disease microbe, what anatomic arrangement favors the 

sanguineous engorgement of the spleen in anthrax and 

Texas fever of animals and in malaria in man? 

The capsule, the sheaths of the vessels and the trabeculae consist 

of a dense mesh of white and yellow elastic fibrous tissue which gives 

it a great amount of elasticity. 

Describe the thyroid gland. 

The thyroid gland lies on the sides of the first two tracheal rings. 
It is composed of two lateral lobes and a median portion, the isthmus. 
7 



98 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Its fibrous coat sends prolongations into its structure, as in the 
spleen. Its parenchyma is divided into lobules which contain vesi- 
cles, lined with polygonal cells, and contains albuminous matter. 
It is a very vascular organ, receiving its supply from the thyro- 
laryngeal branch of the carotid artery. Nerve supply from the 
first and second cervical and sympathetic. 

What is the thymus gland ? Where is it found ? 

It is a transitory organ which is found only in the foetus and 
very young animals, and disappears a few months after birth. In 
structure, it closely resembles the thyroid gland. It is situated 
beneath the trachea, partly without and partly within the thoracic 
cavity. 

What are the adrenals? Give location. 

The adrenals, or suprarenals, are two small bodies which resem- 
ble somewhat the kidney in structure. They are applied to the lower 
face of the kidney in front of the hilus and close to their inner 
border. They have no excretory duct but have an internal secretion. 

Topographical Anatomy 

What structures are severed in tracheotomy? 

The skin, connective tissue, the cervical panniculus and stemo- 
thyrohyoideus muscles and the trachea. 

State the difference between the foramen ovale and the foramen 
magnum. 
The foramen ovale is the opening between the auricles of the 
heart, seen in the foetus. 

The foramen magnum is the large orifice that passes through the 
occipital bone and establishes a communication between the cranial 
cavity and the spinal canal. 

Name the structures that would be severed in amputating the hind 
limb just below the tarsus. 
SMn, subcutaneous fascia, flexor pedis perf orans and flexor pedis 
perforatus tendons, the tendon of the oblique flexor of the meta- 
tarsus, the anterior extensor of the phalanges, the lateral extensor 
of the phalanges, the sheaths of these tendons, the plantar arteries, 
the perforating pedal artery, the internal and external plantar 
interosseous arteries, the accompanying veins of these ,arteries, 
two rudimentary and one principal metatarsal bones. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 99 

Name the regions into which the abdominal cavity is divided for study. 

Sublumbar, right and left lumbar, suprasternal, umbilical, pre- 
pubic, right and left inguinal, hypochondriac, flank, diaphragmatic 
and pelvic regions. 

At what point in the head would you trephine to open (a) the frontal 
sinus, (b) the lower maxillary sinus ? 

(a) At the point of intersection of a line connecting the superior 
borders of the orbital cavities and one parallel to, but about one-half 
inch from, the median line. 

(b) Just above the inferior extremity of the zygomatic ridge. 

Through what tissues do you cut in the operation of median neurec- 
tomy? 

Skin, sterno-aponeuroticus muscle and antibrachial fascia. 

Histological Anatomy 

Describe (a) arteries, (b) veins, (c) nerves. 

(a) The arteries are cylindrical tubes which carry the blood from 
the heart to the various organs of the body. All arteries carry pure 
blood with one exception, the pulmonary artery. They originate at 
the heart hy two great trunks which divide and subdivide until their 
size is almost imperceptible (capillaries). 

Arteries are more or less rigid and elastic and have three tunics, 
viz., an external fibrous (tunica adventitia), a middle (tunica 
media), and an internal (tunica intima). 

The outer coat is nourished by small blood-vessels, called vaso- 
vasorum, which are quite voluminous in the large arteries. Nerves, 
vasomotor, from the sympathetic system accompany these vessels. 

(b) The veins are likewise cylindrical tubes which accompany 
the arteries and carry the impure blood from the distant parts 
to the heart ; with one exception, the pulmonary veins which carry 
pure blood from the lungs to the left auricle. They have two 
distinct coats, an internal serous and an external of elastic and 
muscular fibres. The walls of veins are thin, semitransparent and 
elastic and collapse when empty. Nourishment is provided by vaso- 
vasorum. 

The interior of veins is remarkable for the presence of valves 
which favor the flow of blood. No valves are found in the pul- 
monary and portal veins and vena cava. 

(c) The nerves are the peripheral portions of the nervous sys- 
tem. They originate in the brain or cord and are distributed to 
every part of the body. Their structure is made up of a collection 



100 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

of nerve cells bound together by a delicate connective-tissue net- 
work; a number of these collections, united together and covered 
by neurilemma, constitute a nerve. Blood-vessels traverse the 
connective tissue. On the upper root of all the spinal and on the 
track of certain other nerves are masses of nerve cells, ganglia. 
The function of nerves is to conduct impulses to and from the 
brain and spinal cord. 

Describe the structure of voluntary muscle. 

Voluntary muscle is made up of a great number of fibres which 
are marked by transverse furrows or striae, giving rise to the term 
striated or striped muscle. Each fibre is made up of fibrils and 
these in turn can be subdivided into fibrillse or sarcous elements, 
attached to each other end to end. The muscle fibres unite to form 
secondary fasciculi which are covered by a connective sheath, the 
internal perimysium. The secondary fasciculi unite to form more 
voluminous fasciculi which form the entire muscle. The muscle is 
covered by a connective sheath, called the external perimysium or 
sarcolemma. The nuclei are flat or oval and can be seen on the 
inner face of the sarcolemma. 

State the difference in structure between striped muscular tissue and 
unstriped muscular tissue. 
(See answer to preceding question.) Unstriped muscular tissue 
has no transverse striae and is found in the viscera. It is not under 
control of the will, hence is called involuntary. Its structure con- 
sists of fusiform cells, each with a distinct nucleus and bound 
together by connective tissue. 

Illustrate the difference between mucous membrane and serous mem- 
brane as to (a) structure and (b) location. . . 

(a) Both membranes have two layers, the deeper of which are 
quite analogous. In mucous membrane, the superficial layer may 
consist of epithelial cells only one layer deep, but usually there 
are several layers (stratified) . Cilia, hair-like appendages, are seen 
on the surface of mucous membranes in some parts of the body, 
as well as depressions in the deeper layer, giving rise to follicles and 
papilla. In serous membranes, the superficial layer always consists 
of flat polygonal epithelial cells, one layer deep. The free surface 
is always smooth. 

(b) Mucous membrane is found throughout the inner walls of 
the alimentary canal, respiratory channels, bladder, urethra and 
vagina. Serous membrane is found within the thoracic cavity. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 101 

lining the same and covering the enclosed viscera, as well as in the 
abdominal cavity, where it is disposed in a similar manner. 

Mention the varieties of connective tissue. 

Fibrous, elastic, cartilaginous and bone. 

Describe the composition of blood. 

Blood contains: liquor sanguinis or plasma, containing in solu- 
tion proteids (serum-albumin, serum-globulin, fibrinogen), extrac- 
tives, mineral matter and gases; corpuscles, red and white. 

Name the structures and coverings of the kidneys, from without inward 
to the pelvis and the opening of the ureter. 
1, Capsule; 2, cortex, composed of Malpighian bodies, support- 
ing connective tissue, vessels and tubules, etc. ; 3, medulla, composed 
of uriniferous tubules (loop of Henle, convoluted and straight 
tubules) ; 4, crest of the pelvis, pelvis; 5, infundibulum of the pelvis 
and ureter. 

Where is elastic fibrous tissue found? 

It is found closely packed in certain organs such as the ligamen- 
tum nuchas and abdominal tunic, or forming a network in the midst 
of connective tissue, as in the walls of arteries. It is also found in 
the framework of bone. 

Name the different kinds of epithelium. State where ciliated epithelium 
is found and give its special function. 

Kinds : squamous, columnar, modified and specialized. 

Columnar and squamous varieties are polyhedral, pavement, or 
tessellated and may be either simple or stratified. Modified epi- 
thelium includes the ciliated, goblet and pigmented varieties. 
Specialized includes glandular and neuro-epithelium. 

Ciliated epithelium is found in the Eustachian tube and parts 
of the tympanic cavity ; lachrymal passages ; respiratory part of the 
nasal fossae, with the communicating sinuses; ventricles of the 
larynx; trachea and bronchi; epididymis and first part of the 
vas deferens. 



PHYSIOLOGY* 

What does the study of physiology comprise ? 

The sum of the knowledge concerning the function of living 
things. 

Define excretion. Mention four ways in which waste matter of the 
properties of cells." 
All animal and vegetable life is composed of minute structural 
elements, called *' cells." Every living organism is derived from 
a parent cell, the ovum, which, through endless division and sub- 
division, develops into a mature body. Since physiology treats of 
the structure and function of living things, it may be truly said 
that ** physiology is the study of the properties of cells." 

What properties does a cell possess? 

A cell wall, cell body of protoplasm which includes a nucleus 
and a nucleolus. The vital manifestations of a cell embrace 
metabolism, growth, reproduction and irritability. 

Describe cell division. 

Direct cell division, the simplest form, consists of a direct cleav- 
age of the cell body and nucleus into two parts. 

KaryokinesiSf mitosis or indirect cell division, is more complex 
and includes a series of changes involving the nucleus, the centro- 
somes and the cytoplasm. In this form, the chromatin of the nucleus 
arranges itself in a star-shaped skein, the bars of which compose 
themselves symmetrically. The two symmetrical parts separate, 
followed by a cleavage of the cell body, making two distinct cells 
in which the chromatin granules are more or less scattered. The 
latter then assume a normal appearance and soon each new cell 
prepares itself for division. 

Name the eliminative organs of the body and state what each elim- 
inates. 
Skin: Eliminates water, urea, uric acid, fatty acids, carbon 
dioxide, serum albumin, serum globulin, fat, and sodium and potas- 
sium salts. 

Kidneys: Eliminate water, urea, uric acid, hippuric acid, ben- 
zoic acid, phenol, sulphates, phosphates, and chlorides of sodium, 
potassium, calcium and magnesium. 

* Unless otherwise stated all questions relate to the horse. 
102 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 103 

Lungs: Eliminate carbon dioxide and water. 

Fagces consist of the undigested portion of the food which is indi- 
gestible, together with that which though digestible has escaped 
absorption ; mixed with these are water, coloring substances, mucin, 
organic matters, inorganic salts, bile pigment, volatile fatty acids, 
remains of digestive fluids, microorganisms, etc. 

DeHne excretion. Mention four ways in which waste matter of the 
body is eliminated. 
Excretion refers to the throwing off or ejection of waste matter, 
formed in the body, which is not intended to be retained in the 
body and if retained would be harmful. 

Waste matter is eliminated by the urine, faeces, skin and expired 
air. 

Explain the meaning of four of the following : chordae tendinae, haema- 
tin, GoU's column, bile salts, accommodation. 

Chordse tendinae are the small tendinous cords, attached to the 
free border of the heart valves, which unite the latter to the walls. 

Hsematin is the iron-containing substance of the haemoglobin. 

Goll 's column is the superior median tract or column of the 
spinal cord. 

Bile salts, two in number, glycocholate and taurocholate, are 
formed in the liver by the union of cholalic acid with glycin and 
taurin. 

Accommodation refers to the power which the eye possesses of 
focusing itself for near and distant objects. 

Define and illustrate five of the following terms: absorption, chyle, 
excretion, ferment, tidal air, phagocytosis, alimentation. 

Absorption is the process of taking up fluids or other sub- 
stances by the skin, mucous surfaces or absorbent vessels, e.g.^ 
absorption of chyle by the lacteals. 

Chyle is the milky fluid taken up by the lacteals from the digested 
food in the intestines. 

Excretion is the act or process of eliminating waste matter from 
the body, e.g., urea is excreted by the kidneys. 

Ferment is a substance which decomposes or causes fermentation 
in other substances with which it comes in contact, e.g., pepsin 
changes proteids into peptones. 

Tidal air is the quantity of air taken in and expelled by an 
ordinary respiration. In the horse it amounts to about 250 cubic 
inches. 



104 VETERINAEY STATE BOARD 

Phagocytosis is the destruction of microorganisms and injurious 
substances by the phagocytes, e.g., leucocytes envelop and digest 
bacteria. 

Alimentation is the act or process of affording nourishment, 
e.g., food in the alimentary canal. 

Define the following terms : excretion, secretion, exosmose, decussation, 
reflex action. 

Excretion: see preceding question. 

Secretion is the process of separating from the blood and cells 
a substance intended, eventually, to be utilized in the body. 

Exosmose is the act of liquids and gases in passing outward 
through a membrane. 

Decussation refers to the crossing of the fibres of the pyramids of 
the medulla from one pyramid to another. 

Reflex action is an involuntary movement produced by stimu- 
lation of a peripheral nerve. 

State the kind of epithelium (a) in the lungs, (b) in the stomach, (c) 
in the larynx. 

(a) Single layer of polygonal plates, mostly without nuclei and 
including groups of small and round cells. 

(b) Tall columnar, some of which are the goblet-cell variety. 

(c) Stratified, ciliated, columnar and stratified squamous. 

Describe the function of the blood, gland cells and nerves in secretion. 

How does secretion differ from (a) transudation, (b) 

oedema, (c) exudation? 

Secretion is the result of the activity of the protoplasm of the 

secreting cell. The inorganic constituents of a secretion are derived 

from the blood by osmosis ; the organic constituents are the results 

of active manufacturing processes occurring within the protoplasmic 

cell-contents. Through the impulse conveyed by the nerve, the 

glandular blood-vessels dilate and secretion is stimulated. 

Secretion differs from transudation, cedema and exudation, in 
that the latter are merely acts of filtration or osmosis and no glandu- 
lar activity is concerned. 

Which organ, liver or kidney, receives the greater amount of blood, 

and what conditions, anatomic, hydrostatic and circulatory, 

contribute to the difference? 

The liver receives the greater amount because of its greater size, 

more dependent position and greater blood supply; besides the 

hepatic artery, the portal vein, draining the whole splanchnic area, 

empties into it. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 105 

What are the physical properties of bone? How does the chemical 
composition of bone vary with age? 

Bones are composed of an outer layer of compact tissue and of a 
spongy, reticular tissue which forms the interior (marrow). The 
compact tissue is traversed by channels called ' ' Haversian canals, ' ' 
from which radiate numerous canaliculi ; the latter are surrounded 
by concentric lamellas of bone, separated by spaces (lacunae) con- 
taining the bone cells, corpuscles. These lacunae communicate with 
the Haversian canals through the canaliculi. The inner spongy tis- 
sue contains large marrow cavities. The exterior of bone is covered 
by a thin, tough, protective membrane, the periosteum. 

As age advances, the bones contain less organic matter and more 
of the inorganic constituents. 

Give the composition of bone. State how bone is nourished and give 
the function of long bones. 

See answer to preceding question. 

Bones consist of connective tissue, the substratum of which is 
osseine (an animal matter which yields gelatin upon boiling), 
impregnated with lime salts, chiefly calcium phosphate. Bone is 
composed of one-third animal matter and two-thirds mineral mat- 
ter. Nourishment is supplied to bone by a nutrient artery which 
sends branches into the medullary and Haversian canals. 

Long bones serve an important part in locomotion by imparting 
rigidity to the limbs and furnishing muscular attachments, as well 
as by entering into the formation of joints. 

Mention the functions of the articular cartilages. 

1. Favor, by their smoothness, the gliding and displacement of 
bones. 

2. By their suppleness and elasticity, they lessen the violent 
shocks to which the articulations are exposed. 

3. They resist the wear and deformations of the articular sur- 
faces. 

Mention with regard to the body (a) the principal secreting organs, 
(b) the excreting organs, (c) the vital organs. 

(a) Salivary glands, gastric glands, liver, pancreas, sebaceous 
glands, synovial, mucous and serous membranes, lachrymal glands. 
The spleen, thymus, thyroid and adrenals have an internal secretion. 

(b) SMn, kidneys, bowels and lungs. 

(c) Heart, lungs, brain, intestines, liver, kidneys. 



106 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Mention the elements composing proteids. 

Nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and varying amounts of 
sulphur. 

Mention the inorganic constituents of the animal body. 

1. Water. 

2. Salts, viz., salts of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium 
and iron in the form of chlorides, sulphates, phosphates and car- 
bonates. 

3. Gases, viz., oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, 
sulphuretted hydrogen and marsh gas. 

Blood 
What is blood? 

The blood is the fluid that circulates through the heart, arteries 
and veins, carrying nutriment and oxygen to the tissues of the 
body. It is a red, opaque, rather viscous fluid with an alkaline 
reaction, characteristic odor and saltish taste; specific gravity 1060. 

What is the chemical composition of the blood ? 

Water 81 parts. 
Solids 19 parts. 

Haemoglobin (0.4 per cent, iron) 13 parts. 

Proteids 4 parts. 

Fibrinogen 

Serum globulin 

Serum albumin 

Fibrin ferment 

Fibrin globulin 
Salts 1 part. 

Sodium chloride 

Potassium chloride 

Sodium carbonate 

Calcium phosphate 

Magnesium phosphate 

Sodium phosphate 

Potassium phosphate 
Extractives 0.6 part. 

Fats 

Cholesterin 

Lecithin 

Creatin 

Urea 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 107 

Hippuric acid 
Uric acid 
Grape sugar. 
Nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide gases are also present. 

/. C Describe the composition of the blood with reference to the nature and 
the purpose of each component part. 
It consists of a colorless liquid, the plasma, containing red 
blood-corpuscles (erythrocytes), yellowish, circular, biconcave discs, 
containing hsemoglobin which carries the oxygen; white blood-cor- 
puscles (leucocytes), white spherical amoeboid masses of proto- 
plasm, having phagocytic powers ; blood platelets, small bodies, one- 
quarter the size of a red cell, function unknown. 

Mention the proteids of the blood. 

Fibrinogen, serum albumin, serum globulin, fibrin ferment and 
fibrin globulin. 

Mention three gases found in the blood. Indicate the relative amount 

of each of these gases in arterial blood and in venous blood, 

respectively. 

Oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. In the arteries, oxygen 

is present in a greater amount and carbon dioxide in a lesser 

amount than in the veins. The amount of nitrogen is practically 

the same in both cases. 

State the average amount of blood in the horse. 

6.6 per cent, of the body weight. About 66 pounds or 55 pints 
in the average horse. 

Describe the function of (a) red blood-corpuscles, (b) leucocytes. 

(a) Carriers of oxygen. 

(b) Take up and digest bacteria and other injurious substances 
(phagocytosis). 

State how the red blood-corpuscles vary in size and shape in the dif- 
ferent animals. 
Horse: non-nucleated, biconcave discs, 4 to 5 microns in diameter. 
Ox: non-nucleated, biconcave discs, 3 to 5 microns in diameter. 
Sheep : non-nucleated, biconcave discs, 2 to 4 microns in diameter. 
Dog: non-nucleated, biconcave discs, 5 to 7 microns in diameter. 
Cat: non-nucleated, biconcave discs, 5 to 6 microns in diameter. 
Camel : non-nucleated, oval bodies, 7 microns long, 4 microns broad. 
Fowls : nucleated, oval bodies, 12 microns long, 7.5 microns broad. 



108 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

What are the principal differences between arterial blood and venous 
blood? 
Arterial blood contains more oxygen and less carbon dioxide, 
more water, fibrinogen, extractives, salts and sugar, fewer blood- 
corpuscles and less urea; its temperature is, on the average, 1° C. 
lower. Venous blood is darker in color, due to the diminution in the 
oxygen-content. 

What is the color of the blood in the renal veins? Why? 

Dark-blue, same as all venous blood. In its passage through the 
kidney, the blood loses oxygen and takes up carbon dioxide, there- 
fore, it is venous in character as it leaves this organ. 

What salts render the blood alkaline? 

The phosphate and bicarbonate of soda. 

Describe the process of coagulation of the biood. 

The blood first becomes a jelly and then a firm clot. The clot con- 
tracts and squeezes out a fluid, serum. As this serum accumulates, 
the clot sinks. The substance which brings about coagulation is 
fibrinogen, which, being acted upon by the ferment, thrombin, 
produces fibrin. 

Of what does a blood clot consist? How would you demonstrate the 

presence of fibrin in freshly drawn blood? 

A blood clot consists of fibrin and blood-corpuscles. Fibrin 

may be demonstrated by defibrinating freshly drawn blood. This 

is accomplished by whipping the blood with a rod or bunch of 

twigs; the fibrin separates rapidly and collects on the rod. 

What influences the combination of haemoglobin with oxygen? 

The atmospheric pressure of oxygen being higher than the 
pressure of the oxygen in the venous blood as it arrives at the heart 
may play a very small part in influencing the taking up of oxygen by 
the blood; but the strong affinity of haemoglobin and oxygen for 
each other is of greater influence. This subject has not been satis- 
factorily explained. 

How is oxygen carried in the blood and where is it exchanged for 
carbon dioxide? 
It is carried in the blood united with the haemoglobin, as oxy- 
haemoglobin. It is exchanged for carbon dioxide in the tissues. 

When serum is used subcutem for therapeutic purposes, what danger 
attends its transfer from one genus to another? 
Haemolysis, breaking down of red blood-corpuscles and liberation 
of haemoglobin, occurs. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 109 

What morbid and dangerous states of the blood may be connected with 

the suspension of bihary secretion? 

Jaundice, intoxication with the waste products of the biliary 

secretion (cliolesterin and lecithin) and the poisonous products in 

the alimentary canal, due to constipation following a lack of the 

stimulating action of bile on peristalsis. 

What is (a) oxyhasmoglobin, (b) methaemoglobin, (c) haematoidin? 

(a) Haemoglobin charged with oxygen. 

(b) A modification of oxyhaemoglobin in which the oxygen is 
more firmly united than in ordinary oxyhaemoglobin. It occurs 
pathologically whenever there is a sudden breaking down of the red 
blood-corpuscles, e.g., as in azoturia. 

(c) A yellow-brown, crystalline, iron-free product, derived from 
hgematin. It is found in old blood clots. 

Heart 

What is the influence of the vagus nerve on the heart? What would 

be the effect on the heart if the vagi nerves were cujt? 

The vagus (pneumogastric) has a restraining or, as it is termed, 

an inhibitory effect on the heart movements. If cut, the inhibitory 

action is removed, the heart rate is greatly increased, and the 

blood-pressure rises. 

Describe the cardiac sounds. 

There are really four cardiac sounds, but, as they occur in pairs, 
we recognize only two. The first sound is dull, deep, prolonged 
and louder than the second, which is short, not so deep and not 
so loud. The two sounds are best reproduced by pronouncing 
the words 'Huhh dupp." 

What are the cardiac sounds? What causes these sounds? 

See answer to preceding question. 

The first sound is caused by the closing of the auriculoven- 
tricular valves and the contraction of the muscular fibres. The 
second sound is due to the closure of the semilunar valves. 

Explain the action of digitalis on the heart. 

It reduces the frequency of the heart-beat and later excites the 
cardiac muscle to a stronger and prolonged systole. It is a cardiac 
tonic. 

Define (a) systole, (b) diastole, (c) cardiac cycle. 

(a) Systole is the term applied to the hearths contraction. It 
occurs synchronously with the first heart sound ; by it, the blood is 
driven into the aorta and pulmonary artery. 



110 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

(b) The dilatation or stage of dilatation of the heart. 

(c) A cardiac cycle is a complete cardiac movement or heart- 
beat. It includes the period from the beginning of one heart-beat 
to the end of another, i.e., the systolic and diastolic movements with 
the interval between. 

Blood-vessels 

How do arteries and veins differ in (a) structure, (b) function ? What 
arteries carry venous blood and what veins carry arterial 
blood? 

(a) The walls of veins are thinner than those of arteries and 
they collapse when empty. They contain less elastic and muscular 
material and more fibrous tissue than arteries. Veins are provided 
with valves which are not present in arteries. 

(b) Veins carry impure blood from the tissues to the heart. 
Arteries carry pure blood from the heart to the various parts of the 
body. There are two exceptions, viz., the pulmonary artery carries 
venous blood from the heart to the lungs and the pulmonary vein 
carries pure blood from the lungs to the heart. 

How does the internal coat of an artery differ from that of a vein? 

Arteries have no valves as do the veins. 

Discuss the forces that cause the blood to circulate in (a) the arteries, 
(b) the capillaries, (c) the veins. 

(a) Force of the heart's contraction, and the elasticity of the 
arterial walls. 

(b) Pressure from arteries and elasticity of the walls. 

(c) Muscular contractions, valves, gravity, and negative 
pressure in veins leading directly into the right heart. 

Describe the course of the blood from the right auricle back to the 
same point. What part of this circulation is called the sys- 
temic circulation? 
From the right auricle, blood flows through the tricuspid valve 
into the pulmonary artery, to the lungs, returning to the left auricle 
through the pulmonary veins, completing the pulmonary circulation. 
From the left auricle, the blood begins the systemic circulation, 
passing through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle, thence 
through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta, which divides 
and subdivides until every part of the body is supplied. Collecting 
in the veins, it is carried through the anterior and posterior vena 
cava to the right auricle, whence it started, thus completing the 
systemic circulation. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 111 

Describe the circulation of the blood. 

See answer to preceding question. 

Discuss the relative velocity of the blood in the arteries, capillaries and 
veins. 
Greatest velocity is in the arteries, least in the capillaries, and 
rising again in the veins. 

Define blood-pressure. Mention (a) factors that increase blood- 
pressure, (b) factors that decrease blood-pressure. 
Blood-pressure is the tension on the walls of the blood-vessels 
derived from the blood current. 

(a) Increase in force of the heart-beat and contraction of the 
arterioles. 

(b) Decrease in the force of the heart-beat and dilatation of the 
arterioles. 

Where is blood-pressure (a) the highest, (b) the lowest? How is 
blood-pressure governed? 

(a) In the region of the aorta. 

(b) In the region of the periphery. 

Blood-pressure is governed by the contraction of the heart and 
the resistance offered by the peripheral vessels ; all being regulated 
by the vasomotor centre in the brain. 

Describe the flow of blood in the arteries. 

The centre of the vessel is occupied by a column of rapidly 
moving red cells, while between them and the vessel wall is a clear 
layer in which the white corpuscles move slowly along, occasionally 
stopping along the sides, then moving forward once more. 

What is meant by the velocity of the blood ? State where this velocity 
is (a) the greatest, (b) the least. 

Velocity refers to the rate at which the blood flows through the 
blood-vessels. The velocity varies inversely as the sectional area of 
the tubes. Since the total sectional area of the capillaries is greater 
than that of the arteries or veins, the velocity is least in the capil- 
laries and greatest in the arteries. 

What causes the flow of blood in the veins? 

Muscular contractions, valves, gravity and the negative pressure 
in the veins leading directly into the right auricle. 

Why is blood-pressure highest at the beginning of an expiration and 
lowest at the beginning of an inspiration? 

At the beginning of expiration, which is really the height of 
inspiration, the intrathoracic pressure is greatest, more blood is 



112 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

forced into the aorta and, therefore, the blood-pressure is highest. 
At the beginning of an inspiration, which is really the end of an 
expiration, there is a negative intrathoracic pressure, the blood is 
aspirated into the right auricle and the blood-pressure is lowest. 

Describe the circulation of the blood in the brain. 

Supplied by the cerebrospinal branch of the external carotid, 
which divides into two branches, the median spinal and basilar, and 
the internal carotid, which divides into the posterior communicating 
and the common trunk of the anterior and middle cerebral arteries. 

The venous arrangement is very remarkable; the walls of the 
veins are composed of the dura mater and portions of the cranial 
bones. The veins, or sinuses of the brain, are large cavities which, 
because of their unyielding walls, allow the venous blood to return 
freely. The cerebral circulation is assisted by the fluid in the ven- 
tricles of the brain. This fluid passes from one ventricle to another 
and to the spinal cord; therefore, when the external pressure be- 
comes greater, the internal becomes less, thereby avoiding any 
compression of the brain substance. 

Describe the portal circulation. 

The portal circulation begins in the small mesenteric, the great 
mesenteric and splenic veins, all of which unite to form the portal 
vein. The latter, beginning near the great mesenteric artery, passes 
through the pancreatic ring and divides in the great posterior fissure 
of the liver to enter its structure, carrying the venous blood, which, 
after circulating through the liver, leaves it by the hepatic vein. 

Describe the circulation of the blood in the kidney. 

The blood enters at the hilus hy the renal artery, which breaks 
up, after entering the organ, into a large number of branches ; these 
branches run in a nearly parallel direction through the medullary 
portion until the cortex is reached, where they diverge in various 
directions to enter the Malpighian corpuscles. In these bodies 
there is a plexus of capillaries, the glomeruli, and leading from 
them are small vessels, arranged similar to the arterial branches, 
which unite to form the renal vein. 

Give the normal pulse of (a) the horse, (b) the ox, (c) the dog, (d) the 
sheep, (e) the cat. 
(a) 36-40; (b) 45-50; (c) 90-120; (d) 70-80; (e) 90-120. 

Vascular Glands 

Mention the vascular glands. 

Spleen, thymus, thyroid, adrenals, pituitary and pineal bodies. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 113 

Name two vascular glands. Give the function of each. 

Spleen: Red blood-corpuscles are formed in the spleen during 
intra-uterine life, but after birth they are destroyed in it. This 
organ is thought by some to produce an enzyme which converts 
trypsinogen into trypsin and also to produce uric acid. It serves as 
a reservoir for the abdominal circulation. 

Thyroid : This gland has an internal secretion which is directed 
to the nutrition of the body. The nature of this secretion is not 
well understood. 

Respiration 

Describe the process of respiration. Describe the changes that take 
place in inspired air during the process of respiration. 

The act of respiration is divided into two parts, inspiration and 
expiration. The former, by which the chest is filled with air, is a 
purely muscular act; the diaphragm contracts and therefore re- 
cedes, the ribs are rotated, being drawn forward and outward, their 
posterior edges everted, and the intercostal space widened. By 
these means the capacity of the chest is increased and the lungs 
expand to fill the space, thus causing air to rush in. Expiration is 
effected by the recoil of the lungs and the displaced abdominal 
organs, the contraction of the abdominal muscles and the internal 
intercostals. Through these movements the air is expelled from 
the lungs. 

During respiration, part of the oxygen of the air is taken up 
by the blood in exchange for carbon dioxide which is thrown off. 

How are the diameters of the chest enlarged during inspiration? 

By the recession of the diaphragm, the anteroposterior diameter 
of the chest is lengthened from four to five inches and by the out- 
ward rotation of the ribs, the transverse diameter, between the 
eleventh and twelfth ribs, is increased one and one-half inches. 

Compare inspired air with expired air as to relative quantity of oxygen, 
nitrogen and carbon dioxide. 
Inspired air contains more oxygen and less carbon dioxide than 
expired air ; the amount of nitrogen is the same in both. 

Oxygen. 
Inspired air 20.96 

Expired air ." 16.02 

Mention the functions of respiration. 

Supplies oxygen to the blood and excretes carbon dioxide, solids, 
moisture, etc. 
8 



Nitrogen 


Carbon dioxide. 


79.01 


0.03 


79.01 


4.38 



114 VETERINAEY STATE BOARD 

Give in full the functions of the lungs. 

Medium of interchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen between 
the air and blood. 

Name (a) two inspiratory muscles, (b) two expiratory muscles. What 
is the normal stimulus to the action of these muscles? 

(a) Diaphragm and external intercostals. 

(b) Abdominal and internal intercostals. 

Inspiration is presided over by a centre in the medulla. Ex- 
piration is thought to be a purely passive act. 

Discuss the absorption of gas by fluids. 

If the atmosphere, containing a mixture of gases, be exposed over 
a fluid containing some of these gases dissolved in it, it is found 
that if the proportion of dissolved gases in the fluid is less than 
their proportion in the atmosphere, the latter pass into the fluid 
until the amounts in air and fluid are equal. Likewise, if the 
fluid contains more dissolved gas than the atmosphere, gas will pass 
from the fluid to the air above until the amounts are equal. This 
is a process of diffusion. 

Define tidal air and residual air. 

Tidal air is the air breathed in and out in an ordinary respiration. 
Residual air is that which always remains after a forced expiration. 

Give the normal number of respirations per minute in (a) the horse, 
(b) the ox, (c) the sheep, (d) the hog, (e) the dog. 

(a) 8-16; (b) 12-15; (c) 12-20; (d) 10-15; (e) 15-20. 

What is the ratio of respirations to the pulse beats? 
About 1:4. 

Describe the lining of the bronchial tubes, touching on epithelium and 
glands. 
The bronchi are lined with mucous membrane composed of 
ciliated epithelium and containing mucous glands. 

What is the meaning of each of the following: (a) eupncea, (b) hy- 
perpnoea, (c) dyspnoea, (d) apnoea? 

(a) Easy or normal respiration. 

(b) Moderate increase in the respiratory movements. 

(c) Difficult or labored breathing. 

(d) Transient cessation of breathing following a forced respira- 
tion. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 115 

Describe the different stages of asphyxia. How does asphyxia cause 
death? 

First stage : labored breathing, all muscles of respiration being 
brought into play ; convulsions ; blood-pressure rises. 

Second stage : inspiratory muscles less active ; expiratory 
muscles still powerful ; convulsions cease. 

Third stage: unconsciousness, occasional inspiratory gaspings, 
mouth open, the pupils dilated, pulse imperceptible, blood-pressure 
falls. Death occurs from five to six minutes after the beginning of 
the first stage. 

Asphyxia causes death by creating a deficiency of oxygen and an 
excess of carbon dioxide in the blood. Carbon dioxide is a poison 
and affects the cardiac centre in the brain, causing death. 

Give the composition of normal air and state how it supports life. 

By volume. By weight. 

Oxygen *. 20.96 23.015 

Nitrogen 79.01 76.985 

Carbon dioxide 03 

Normal air supports life by supplying oxygen which it contains 
in an uncombined state. 

What animals may, with effort, breathe through a broken long bone? 
Why? 
Birds, because they have a system of air sacs in the bones which 
communicate with the lungs. 

Digestion 

Give the different steps in the process of digestion. 

Prehension, mastication, salivation, deglutition, gastric digestion, 
intestinal digestion, absorption and defecation. 

Give the dental formula for the horse and the ox. 



Horse: I o^o' C ^3' P 



f3-3 
3-3, 

A A O O 

5-5 M 5-g. Total 40. No canines in mare, total 36. 

or 

4-4 

4-4' 



Ox- I ^, C 9l9, ¥^,M^. Total 32. 
4-4 0-0 3-3 3-3 



116 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

How do horses, cattle and sheep, respectively, take in their food? 
Have these methods any bearing on swallowing non-alimen- 
tary and harmful bodies? 

Horses prehend the food mainly with the lips and thoroughly 
masticate it. Because of this thorough mastication, any foreign 
body is quite sure to be detected and rejected. 

Cattle use their long tongue to convey food into the mouth, 
whence it passes directly to the rumen through a thin, distensible 
oesophagus, hence foreign bodies are frequently swallowed. 

Sheep have a cleft upper lip which enables them to graze closely 
and pick up very small objects. They have a delicate manner of 
eating and are less liable to swallow foreign bodies than cattle, but, 
owing to their method of swallowing their food with little or no 
mastication, foreign bodies are more commonly found in their 
stomachs than is the case with the horse. 

Name the digestive ferments. What digestive ferments act on (a) 
fat, (b) starch, (c) proteid? 

Ptyalin, pepsin, rennin, trypsin, steapsin, amylopsin, entero- 
kinase, erepsin, maltase, invertase and lactase. 

(a) Steapsin; (b) ptyalin and amylopsin; (c) pepsin and 
trypsin. 

What are the physical and chemical properties of saliva? 

An alkaline, opalescent, or slightly turbid fluid which readily 
froths when shaken. On exposure to the air it throws down a 
deposit of calcium carbonate due to the loss of carbon dioxide. 
It has a specific gravity of 1005. Microscopically, it consists of 
epithelial scales and salivary corpuscles. Saliva consists of a 0.6 
per cent, mineral matter and 0.2 per cent, organic matter, the latter 
consisting of mucin and small amounts of proteid matter. The salts 
are: calcium carbonate, calcium chloride, calcium phosphate, mag- 
nesium chloride and magnesium phosphate. It contains a ferment 
known as ptyalin which converts starches into sugar. The gases 
of saliva are : carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen. 

Name four uses of saliva. 

Assists in mastication and swallowing; stimulates the nerves of 
taste and has an amylytic action. In ruminants, it assists in 
rumination. 

Describe the cells of the parotid gland when actively secreting. 

The granular material passes toward the centre of the acinus or 
lumen, leaving each cell with a clear outer edge and the edge next 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 117 

the lumen is granular; when the cells are exhausted, they are 
smaller and remarkably clear, only a few granules being left on the 
inner edge, whilst the lumen is now distinct and large and the 
nuclei become large and rounded, showing the nucleoli. 

Compare the amount of saliva in the horse with that in the ox. On 

what conditions does the amount secreted depend? 

It has been estimated that the horse secretes 84 pounds and the 

ox 112 pounds of saliva in 24 hours. The amount depends on the 

dryness of the food, more being secreted when eating dry than moist 

foods. 

How is food when swallowed prevented from getting into the posterior 
nares and the larynx? 
The soft palate prevents food entering the posterior nares and 
the epiglottis protects the larynx. 

Describe the phenomena of regurgitation in ruminants. 

Rumination is a reflex, nervous act and can only be performed 
by means of the united action of the diaphragm, stomach walls and 
abdominal muscles. It is performed as follows : The churning move- 
ment of the rumen throws the food gently against the oesophageal 
groove, when a spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm and abdom- 
inal muscles forces some of the liquid content of the reticulum and 
the solid matter from the rumen into the oesophagus. The funnel- 
shaped extremity of the latter contracts and cuts off the bolus, which, 
by a reverse peristaltic action, is conveyed to the mouth. After a 
thorough mastication, the bolus is reswallowed and passes directly 
into the third compartment of the stomach. 

Explain fully why a normal horse can rarely vomit. 

1. The cardiac extremity of the oesophagus is thickened and 
contracted. 

2. The oesophagus enters the stomach in an oblique direction. 

3. The dilated pylorus lies close to the contracted cardia, so that 
compression of the stomach contents forces them into the duodenum. 

4. The mucous coat is thrown into folds over the cardiac opening. 

5. Encircling the cardia are muscular loops the contractions of 
which keeps the opening tightly closed. 

6. The stomach is not in contact with the abdominal wall. 

State the function of the stomach. 

It thoroughly mixes the food and through the action of the 
enzymes, secreted by its walls, converts proteid matter into pep- 
tone, thereby rendering it absorbable. In young animals, there is 



118 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

another enzyme, rennin, which curdles milk. In the stomach of 
dogs, free hydrochloric acid is present; it aids in the digesting 
of bone. 

Give the composition of gastric juice. From what is the hydrochloric 
acid derived? 
Water, hydrochloric acid, lactic acid, pepsin, rennin, chlorides, 
phosphates and iron. 

The hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice is thought to be 
derived from the gastric glands which form it from the chlorides, 
which the mucous membrane takes up from the blood. 

Describe the digestion of proteids in the stomach. 

Pepsin converts proteids into peptones. This change is effected 
through several stages. The intermediate products in the order in 
which they occur are: 

1. The proteid as consumed, or native albumin. 

2. Acid albumin, or syntonin. 

3. Primary proteoses. 

4. Secondary proteoses. 

5. Peptones. 

How many stomachs has (a) the horse, (b) the ox, (c) the goat, (d) 
the camel? 
(a) One; (b), (c) and (d) one stomach divided into four com- 
partments, which gives rise to the common statement that they have 
four stomachs. The fourth compartment, the abomasum, is the 
true stomach and is practically the same as the stomach of other 
animals. 

State the condition of food as it leaves the abomasum. 

It is a soft, pasty mass with a sour odor and alkaline reaction; 
the proteids have been converted into peptones and the starch is 
said to have been digested. In the young, the milk has been curdled. 

State the extent of the secreting (peptic) mucosa, as compared with 
the non-peptic, in the stomach of the horse, hog and dog 
and in the fourth stomach of the ox. 
In the horse, the peptic mucosa constitutes about two-thirds of 
the whole lining of the stomach, the non-peptic the remainder. 

In the hog, the peptic mucosa constitutes about one-third, the 
remainder being non-peptic. 

In the dog, the peptic mucosa extends over the whole extent of 
the stomach wall. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 119 

In the ox, about the same relation exists between the two as in 
the horse, but the glands of the pylorus are poorer in pepsin than 
those of the fundus. 

Name the different digestive ferments in the gastric secretion of the 

mature horse and the different proximate food principles 

that they digest. State how this action is affected in each 

case by acidity and alkalinity, respectively. 

Pepsin acts on proteid matter and can only do so in an acid 

medium. The gastric secretion is said by some to contain an 

amylolytic ferment ; at any rate, the saliva swallowed with the food, 

this ferment, or both convert starch into sugar in the stomach and 

can only act during the early part of stomach digestion while the 

reaction is alkaline. 

What produces the sensation of (a) hunger, (b) thirst? 

(a) Hunger is referred to the stomach, but the reason why is 
not known. The pneumogastric nerves may be divided but the sen- 
sation of hunger remains. The stomach may be full or empty and 
hunger still exist. 

(b) Thirst is referred to the pharynx. A deficiency of mois- 
ture in the system is always shown by a dryness of the pharynx and 
palate. Nothing is known of the nervous apparatus involved in 
thirst. 

Describe peristaltic action. How is it accomplished? 

Peristaltic action is the worm-like movement by which the ali- 
mentary canal propels its contents. It consists of a wave of contrac- 
tion passing along the tube, anteroposteriorly. It is accomplished 
by the contraction of its circular and longitudinal muscular fibres. 

Mention the glands of the intestinal canal and state their function. 

Lieberkuhn 's and Briinner 's glands secrete a mucous fluid which 
contains enzymes as follows : succus entericus, enterokinase, erepsin, 
inverting ferments (invertase, maltase, lactase). These enzymes 
have very important digestive actions. 

State the difference between chyme and chyle. 

Chyme is the liquid mass into which the food is converted by 
gastric digestion. It is a yellow, frothy, precipitated, slimy fluid, 
w^hich in the anterior part of the intestinal canal possesses a peculiar, 
mawkish smell, and in the ileum, a distinctly fecal odor. In the 
ileum, the contents are considerably less fluid. 

Chyle is the milky fluid taken up by the lacteals from the chyme 
in the intestines. It is a turbid, alkaline fluid, containing fat 



120 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

globules. In starving animals it is transparent, owing to the absence 
of fat, and in herbivora it is said to be yellowish or yellowish-green, 
owing to the chlorophyll in the food. 

How does chyle differ from lymph? 

Chemically they are very much alike, but chyle contains fat, 
which gives it a milky appearance. Lymph contains lymph cor- 
puscles and possesses the power of spontaneous clotting. 

State the function of the double colon in digestion. 

In the colon, bacteria attack the unabsorbed products of proteid 
digestion, reducing them to simpler end-products. These end- 
products are partly absorbed, but mostly passed out with the fasces. 

What constitutes the bulk of the faeces? Compare the faeces of her- 
bivora with the faeces of carnivora. 
The faeces consist principally of that portion of the food which 
is undigestible, together with that part which though digestible has 
escaped absorption. 

The faeces of herbivora consist mainly of inorganic matter (58 
per cent.), and they are acid in reaction. In carnivora, there is 
less inorganic matter (20 to 25 per cent.), and they are alkaline in 
reaction. The faeces of carnivora contain a large amount of lime 
salts. 

What relation has the portal vein to absorption from the intestines? 

The portal vein drains the whole splanchnic area, hence the blood 
it carries is charged with substances, absorbed from the intestinal 
canal, that are by-products formed during the gradual breaking- 
down of the food substances. These substances are those which 
are soluble in water, such as salts, sugar, soaps, and peptone. Pep- 
tone is probably changed to serum-albumin during absorption, for 
peptone in the blood is a poison. 

Give the function of the liver. 

Secretion of bile, glycogenic function, formation of urea and 
a protective function (neutralizes poisons). 

Give the blood supply of the liver. 

The hepatic artery supplies the nutritive blood. The functional 
blood is supplied by the portal vein. 

What are the functions of the bile? Show how the secretion of bile 
in the equine differs from that in the bovine. 
Functions of the bile : Emulsifies fat, stimulates peristalsis and 
has slight antiseptic action on the intestinal contents. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 121 

Equines have no gall-bladder, hence the bile is poured into the 
intestines as fast as it is secreted. Bovines have a gall-bladder and 
in this capacious receptacle the bile is stored until required. It 
has been computed that a horse secretes 10 ounces of bile, hourly, 
and the ox only 4 ounces in the same time. 

What is glycogen? 

Glycogen is commonly called "animal starch." It is a carbo- 
hydrate from the liver, leucocytes, cartilage and other tissues. It 
is formed in the liver from carbohydrates and proteids, being con- 
verted into sugar as the needs of the system require, and is carried 
away in the hepatic vein. 

State the function of the pancreas. 

The pancreas secretes a digestive fluid and also has an internal 
secretion which, in some way not well understood, governs the 
amount of sugar in the body. 

Give the composition of the secretion of the pancreas. 

The pancreatic fluid is an alkaline, clear, colorless fluid with 
a saltish, unpleasant taste and a specific gravity of 1010 (in the 
dog, it is viscid). It contains over 98 per cent, water, the balance 
being salts, of which sodium chloride is the most important, and 
organic matter which contains the active principles of the fluid. 
These enzymes are amylopsin, steapsin, trypsin and rennin. 

Give the ferments of the pancreatic juice and state the function of each. 

1. Trypsin is a proteolytic enzyme which converts proteids into 
pepsin. 

2. Amylopsin is a diastatic enzyme which converts starch into 
sugar. ^ 

3. Steapsin is a lipolytic enzyme which acts on fats. 

4. Rennin is a milk-curdling enzyme. 

What is the action of the pancreas on the production of glucose in 
the urine and how is this action understood to be brought 
about? 
If the pancreas be removed, glucose appears in the blood and is 
separated by the kidneys, causing glycosuria. If only partly re- 
moved, glycosuria occurs but to a lesser extent. It is not known 
how this action occurs, but it is considered that the internal secre- 
tion of the pancreas acts upon a ferment in the muscles and makes 
the decomposition of sugar possible. 



122 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Describe the action of salt in digestion. 

Salt increases thirst and causes the animal to drink more water, 
which increases the fluidity of the food and thereby aids digestion 
and absorption. In the stomach, it forms hydrochloric acid, which 
is so essential to gastric digestion. 

Describe several conditions that retard digestion. 

Improper teeth cause improper mastication of the food, which 
hinders the action of the digestive fluids. Improper foods (too hot, 
too bulky, too cold, too dry, etc.) retard digestion. Feeding hay 
before grain causes a retention of the latter in the stomach, and 
disease conditions of any part of the alimentary canal retard or 
entirely prevent digestion. 

Absorption 

Describe the lymph as to (a) appearance, (b) source, (c) function. 

(a) A transparent, slightly yellow-colored fluid, alkaline in reac- 
tion; occasionally it is a light rose color from the presence of red 
blood-corpuscles, and it is often opalescent from the presence of 
fat globules. 

(b) There are two theories advanced to account for the for- 
mation of lymph. The more generally accepted one is the physical 
theory. According to this, the lymph is formed from the blood by 
the process of filtration and osmosis. The second or secretory theory 
is based on the secretory activity of the endothelial lining of the 
capillary walls. 

(c) Lymph is a sort of mediary material between the tissues and 
the blood, by which nourishment is carried from the blood to the 
tissues and effete material taken back to the blood. Generally 
speaking, the lymphatic system is the drainage system of the body 
as contrasted with the blood, the irrigating system. 

Describe the l5miph-spaces, the lymph-capillaries and the general 
arrangement of the lymphatic vessels. 

The lymph-spaces are irregular cavities, lined by epithelioid 
plates, found in the connective tissue outside of the blood-vessel 
walls, into which the lymph passes from the blood. From these 
spaces, the lymph reaches the lymph-capillaries. The latter are 
the most minute branches of the Ijnnphatic vessels and their lining 
is composed of the same epithelioid plates as found in the spaces. 
Between these plates, crevices are supposed to exist through which 
the lymph transudes. 

The lymphatic vessels follow the capillaries. They have, in addi- 
tion to the epithelioid lining, a muscular coat and a connective-tissue 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 123 

covering. Valves, similar to the ones found in veins, are seen in 
their interior. All the lymphatic vessels of the left side of the head 
and neck, the left fore limb, the chest, the abdominal cavity and 
hind limbs converge toward and empty into a central vessel, the 
thoracic duct, which empties into the anterior vena cava; the 
lymphatic vessels of the right side of the head and neck and the 
right fore limb collect and pour their contents by a separate duct 
into the same vein. 

What medicinal and other agencies may be employed as lympha- 
gogues ? 

Ingestion of large quantities of water assists in increasing the 
amount of lymph. Certain agents, when injected into the circu- 
lation, increase the flow of lymph, such as peptone, decoctions of 
intestinal wall, liver, etc., crystalline bodies such as sugar and 
neutral salts. The administration of sodium citrate by the mouth 
increases the general lymphatic circulation. 

In what diseases of connective tissue is the lymph specially involved? 
In infected wounds and suppurative inflammations. 

What forces assist the flow of lymph? 

Contraction of vessel walls, aspiration by the diaphragm, con- 
traction of the abdominal muscles, peristalsis, and valves in the 
lymph-vessels. 

Skin 
State the function of the skin. 

Protective covering for the body; sense of touch; excretion of 
waste matter and regulation of temperature. 

Describe the glands found in the skin of domestic animals, noting 
the relative number and complexity of these in the different 
genera, and the attendant variation of the product in amount 
and facility of secretion. 

The sweat-glands in the ox are rudimentary, consisting merely 
of oval sacs found principally on the muzzle. In the horse, dog, 
cat, sheep and hog they are more highly developed, being long 
convoluted tubes which pass through the entire thickness of the 
skin. The sweat-glands of the horse are quite generally distributed, 
but there are certain parts of the skin which sweat more freely than 
others, for instance, the base of the ears, the neck, sides of the chest 
and the inside of the thighs. Mules and donkeys sweat with diffi- 
culty and then principally at the base of the ears. Dogs and cats 



124 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

perspire freely on the foot-pads and but very little elsewhere. 
The sweating of pigs is confined to the snout. Sheep are said to 
perspire very little or not at all. 

The sebaceous glands, racemose in type, are scattered quite gener- 
ally over the body, but are more especially developed where there 
is an abundant supply of hair, also in the prepuce, ears and eyelids. 
The ducts of the sebaceous glands, as a rule, empty into the hair 
follicles. These glands are very numerous in sheep and secrete 
the oily substance known as wool-fat or lanolin. 

What is the difference between sebaceous and sudoriparous glands? 

Sebaceous glands are racemose in type; their secretion, sehum^ 
an oily substance, is formed principally by a fatty degeneration and 
breaking down of the cell-content. 

Sudoriparous glands secrete sweat by a true secretory activity 
of the cells composing them. The nerve supply to sweat-glands is 
more acutely developed than is the case with sebaceous glands. This 
is demonstrated by the effect of emotion on the production of sweat. 

What is sebum? State where and how it is secreted and give its func- 
tions. 

Sebum is the secretion of the sebaceous glands; it is a thick, 
semifluid substance, composed of fat and epithelial debris from the 
cells of the Malpighian layer. For manner of secretion, see answer 
to preceding question. 

Sebum saves the epithelium from the disintegrating influence of 
water, protects the animal from the elements, especially rain storms ; 
keeps the skin moist and pliable and maintains a glossy hair coat. 

State the effect of a complete compulsory suppression of cutaneous 
perspiration. 
A loss of body heat followed by death in a few days is produced 
by varnishing the skin. Formerly, it was thought that this result 
was due to the retention of poisonous products. 

Of what does dandruff consist? 

Epithelial scales, fat, coloring matters, salts, silica and dirt. 

State the difference in structure of hair, fur and wool. 

Fur is very fine, closely set hair, and is distinguished from 
ordinary hair, which is longer and coarser and generally more or 
less present with it. "Wool is a modified form of hair, distinguished 
by its slender, soft and wavy or curly structure and by the highly 
imbricated or serrated surface of its filaments. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 125 

Mention the conditions that favor the growth of wool or of improve- 
ment in its quality. 
Good feeding of a rather high nitrogenous diet; neither too hot 
nor too cold temperature; dry surroundings. Salt and sulphur 
are thought to aid the growth of wool; at any rate, the former is 
indispensable as a part of the diet and should be given regularly ; 
the latter is valuable as a mild laxative and, by its general tonic 
action, may improve the fleece. 

What precautions may be taken to limit the growth of an injuriously 
long, thick coat of hair? 
Warm quarters and blanketing will cause shedding. Clipping 
may be resorted to. 

Urine 

Give in full the functions of the kidneys. 

They are the filtering organs of the body. They excrete urine, 
which consists of nitrogenous waste products, salts and other ex- 
crementitious substances. 

What is the structure of the capsule of the kidney and how does this 
capsule affect the progress of the urine through the urinif- 
erous tubules, pelvis and ureter? 
It is composed largely of fibrous tissue and is rigid and unyield- 
ing. The internal pressure, therefore, tends to force the urine 
through the various canals. 

Describe the cortical layer of the kidney and state where the secretion 
of the liquid and solid elements of the urine takes place. 
The cortical layer is the essential secreting region. It contains 
the Malpighian bodies and convoluted tubules, as well as the be- 
ginning of the straight collecting tubules. Beneath the capsule, 
also between the cortex and medulla, is a narrow layer in which 
no glomeruli are found, otherwise the cortex is filled with them. 

In the glomeruli, the water and perhaps the salts are passed 
out, while in the tubules the organic matter is excreted. 

Give the composition of urine. 

Water. 

Organic matter: Urea, uric acid, hippuric acid, creatine, crea- 
tinine, benzoic acid, ethereal sulphates of phenol and cresol, color- 
ing matter and mucus. 

Salts: Sulphates, phosphates and chlorides of sodium, potas- 
sium, calcium and magnesium. 



126 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Compare the urine of herbivora with the urine of carnivora as to its 
chemical reaction and give the cause for the difference. 
The urine of herbivora is alkaline, owing to the excess of alkaline 
salts of organic acids contained in their food, such as malic, citric, 
tartaric and succinic. These salts are converted into carbonates 
during their passage through the body and appear as such in the 
urine. The urine of carnivora is acid in reaction, due to the pres- 
ence of the acid phosphate of soda. 

Give the reaction and specific gravity of the urine of (a) the horse, (b) 
the ox, (c) the sheep, (d) the dog. 
(a) Alkaline, 1035; (b) alkaline, 1020; (c) alkaline, 1010; 
(d) acid, 1050. 

What is the average amount, by weight, of excreta and of urine passed 
in 24 hours by (a) the horse, (b) the cow? 

(a) Excreta, 24 lbs. ; urine, 8V2 pints. 

(b) Excreta, 75 lbs. ; urine, 25 pints. 

What are the sources of urea? 

Urea is a nitrogenous end-product, derived from proteid food 
and proteid tissues. These substances, after destruction, are dis- 
charged into the blood in the form of ammonia compounds and are 
then converted into urea in the liver. 

State the causes, racial, dietetic and pathologic, that tend to cause 
acidity of the urine. 
The urine of carnivora is acid, due to the acid phosphate of soda. 
A flesh diet or starvation, when the animal is living on its own 
tissue, produces acidity of the urine. If a horse is fed exclusively 
on oats, its urine becomes acid, because the acidity increases with 
the nitrogen contents of the food; oats are very rich in nitrogen. 
The urine of herbivora is acid in fevers when the appetite is lost or 
impaired, also in catarrh of the intestinal tract. 

Nutrition 

Define (a) metabolism, (b) anabolism, (c) catabolism. What is meant 
by the metabolism of nutrition? 

(a) The changes occurring in living tissues; the building up 
and breaking down of the body tissues. 

(b) The building up process or the conversion of matter into 
protoplasm. 

(c) The breaking down process or the conversion of protoplasm 
into a lower state of organization and ultimately into waste 
products. 

By the term ** metabolism of nutrition" is meant the constructive 
or anabolic metabolism, i.e., the process of assimilation. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 127 

Name some of the important food proteids. What do green vegetables 
contain ? 
Oats, rye, wheat, corn, barley, brewers' grains, clover and grass. 
Green vegetables contain a large proportion of protein. The 
color is due to a green coloring matter, chlorophyll. 

Name the classes of non-nitrogenous foods. Give a list of the foods 
that come under each class named. 

1. Carbohydrates: starch, sugar, gum and cellulose. 

2. Fat: the fat part of milk and meat. 

3. Inorganic matter : chlorine, potassium, sodium and iron. 

Mention the effete materials in the body produced from nitrogenous 
foods. 
Urea, uric acid, hippuric acid, creatine and creatinine. 

What are the ultimate results of proteid foods in the body? 
See answer to preceding question. 

What is the chief function of fat in the body? 

By its oxidation, it supplies heat and energy. 

What would constitute a proper diet for a horse weighing 1500 lbs, 
and working every day? 

Timothy hay 10 pounds 

Oats 12 pounds 

Wheat bran 4 pounds 

Corn 4 pounds 

Give the origin and the destination of glycogen. 

Glycogen is derived from the starch in the food. It is stored in 
the liver and dispensed to the tissues in the form of glucose. 

Discuss briefly the nature and value of a balanced ration. 

A balanced ration is one containing all of the food elements in 
the proper proportions for the animal's requirements without in- 
curring a loss in weight. The tissues require all of the food elements 
but in different proportions. This proportion is approximately one^ 
part of proteid to six parts of carbohydrate and fat. 

Give a daily ration containing the proper relative amount of dry mat- 
ter, proteids, fats and carbohydrates for a dairy cow that 
weighs 900 pounds. 

Clover hay 10 pounds 

Corn silage 35 pounds 

Hominy chops 2 pounds 

Wheat bran 4.5 pounds 

Linseed meal 2.5 pounds 



128 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Give the effects of starvation on the tissue. 

The animal lives on its own tissues. The urine of herbivora be- 
comes acid. Nitrogen is eliminated rapidly at first, but soon only 
a small amount is lost daily. The amount of carbon dioxide excreted 
falls in amount and the absorption of oxygen is reduced. The fat 
suffers the greatest loss, being nearly all consumed before death 
occurs. The central nervous system suffers no loss. 

Animal Heat 

How is the heat of the body (a) maintained, (b) regulated? 

(a) By muscular contraction and tension, glandular activity 
and tissue oxidation. 

(b) By the heat centres in the brain, which preside over and 
maintain an equality in heat production and heat loss. 

What is animal heat? What conditions influence the temperature of 
the body? 
Animal heat is the heat produced in the body by the chemical 
changes occurring in the tissues. Four-fifths of the daily heat pro- 
duction is generated in the skeletal muscles. 

Exercise, feeding, changes in the atmospheric temperature, 
variations in the amount of humidity, sweating, defecation, urina- 
tion and respiration influence the body temperature. 

Give the average normal temperature of the (a) horse, (b) ox, (c) 
dog, (d) sheep, (e) swine, (f) cat. 

(a) 100.4° F. (38.0° C). 
(38.7° C). 
(38.6° C). 
(40.0° C). 
(39.0° C). 
(38.6° C). 

Why does the temperature vary with external conditions in cold- 
blooded animals and remain constant in spite of external 
conditions in warm-blooded animals? 
Because of the difference in the energy of tissue changes. In 
cold-blooded animals the development of heat is so slight that it 
is quickly dissipated in a cold atmosphere, whereas, in warm- 
blooded animals the amount of heat, on account of the greater 
energy of tissue change, is so much greater that it gives up only a 
part to the surrounding medium. Furthermore, in warm-blooded 
animals, the heat-regulating mechanism is undoubtedly more highly 
developed, in fact, there would seem to be no such mechanism in 
the cold-blooded animals. 



(b) 


101.8° 


F. 


(c) 


101.5° 


F. 


(d) 


104.0° 


F. 


(e) 


103.3° 


F. 


(f) 


101.5° 


F. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 129 

Explain why the temperature does not rise unduly as a result of severe 
exercise. 
Because the heat-regulating mechanism causes the excess of heat 
to be lost through radiation, sweating, etc., and thus a balance is 
maintained. 

Mention the causes of the variations in the average temperature of the 
horse and of the dog. 
A rise in temperature may be due to a contraction of the capil- 
laries in the skin, following a cooling of the exterior, thus sending 
more blood to the deeper internal parts. Exercise and oxidation of 
food increase the body heat, therefore there is a daily variation corre- 
sponding to periods of activity and rest. When the peripheral 
vessels dilate, a greater radiation occurs and the internal tempera- 
ture falls. The body temperature is lowest in the early morning 
when the vital processes are at lowest ebb. 

Describe the chief factors in the regulation of the temperature of the 
body. 

The heat centres in the brain preside over the heat-regulating 
mechanism. Heat loss occurs through radiation and conduction, 
evaporation of sweat, evaporation from the mouth and nostrils, 
vaporizing of water from the lungs, warming of inspired air, feces 
and urine. Heat production occurs through oxidation of tissues, 
glandular activity, and muscular contraction and tension. 

What is a calorie or heat unit? 

A large calorie is the amount of heat needed to raise one kilo- 
gramme of water from 0° to 1° 0. A small calorie is the amount 
of heat needed to raise one gramme of water 1° C. in temperature. 
(A horse produces 2.1 large calories per hour for every 2.2 pounds 
of body weight and it is estimated that a 1100 pound horse loses 
20,684 large calories per diem when at rest, 24,500 at moderate 
work and 37,200 at hard work.) 

What tissues produce the greatest amount of heat? 

The skeletal muscles; four-fifths of the daily heat production 
originating in them. 

Compare the natural means by which the body of the horse is cooled 

in summer with the means by which the body of the dog is 

cooled. Explain. 

The horse loses heat to a great extent by the evaporation of 

perspiration from the skin. The dog sweats but little and that only 

on the foot-pads, but by panting, the mouth cavity and respiratory 

passages are supplied with a rapidly changing current of air. This 

9 



130 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

causes a rapid evaporation of moisture from these parts, thereby- 
cooling the body. 

Give arguments for and against clipping horses in winter. 

Far Against 

Less sweating and loss of condition. Require blanketing and warmer quar- 

Less liability to effects of cold. ters. 

Easier to groom. 

Muscular System 

Define: voluntary muscle, involuntary muscle. Give an example of 
each. 

Voluntary muscle is one the movements of which are under the 
control of the will ; nearly always striated j e.g,, any skeletal muscle, 
such as the masseter, biceps, etc. 

Involuntary muscle is one the movements of which are not 
under the control of the will; nearly always non-striated, e.g., 
muscles of the intestinal walls, bladder, etc. 

What peculiarities has the heart muscle? 

Heart muscle is striated but is involuntary. Its fibres are 
formed by branched, nucleated, quadrilateral cells and it has no 
sarcolemma. 

What are the functions of muscle? How many kinds of muscle are 
there? 
Functions : movements of the skeleton, contraction of the heart, 
regulation of the blood supply, transportation of ingesta along the 
alimentary canal. 

Varieties: 1, voluntary, skeletal, striped or red muscle; 2, in- 
voluntary, unstriated or pale muscle ; 3, heart muscle. 

Discuss the phases of a muscular contraction. What chemical changes 
accompany muscular contraction? 

1. The latent period, which lasts about one one-hundredth part 
of a second, is the time occupied by the stimulus to traverse the 
nerve and by the muscle in preparing itself. 

2. The period of contraction occupies about one-twentieth of a 
second, during which time the muscle shortens. 

3. The period of relaxation which follows the maximum of 
contraction and has a duration of about one one-hundredth of a 
second longer than the period of contraction. 

Chemical changes accompanying muscular contraction are: in- 
creased output of creatine, urea, carbon dioxide, sarcolactic acid; 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 131 

production of heat by the oxidation of the carbohydrates, glycogen 
and sugar. 

Define muscular excitability. What conditions tend to (a) impair 
muscular excitability, (b) enhance muscular excitability? 
Muscular excitability is the power possessed by muscles to 
respond to stimuli. This excitability is independent of the motor 
nerve, as may be shown by injecting curare into the muscle, when 
stimulation of the motor nerve will not produce muscular contrac- 
tion, but if the same stimulus is applied directly to the muscle, con- 
traction follows. 

(a) Fatigue and lessened blood supply. 

(b) By training and ** conditioning " the voluntary muscles are 
educated to work in the best and most economical manner; their 
response increases in rapidity and power and their relaxation is 
quickened to prevent loss of time. 

What changes take place in a muscle as a result of rigor mortis? 

The muscle becomes firm and solid, loses its elasticity and does 
not respond to electrical stimuli. Its reaction is no longer alkaline, 
but becomes acid owing to the sarcolactic acid formed. The proteids 
coagulate, carbon dioxide is produced and heat is evolved. 

Nervous System 

Describe (a) an efferent nerve, (b) an afferent nerve. Give the func- 
tion of each. 

(a) One conveying impulses from a centre to the periphery. 
This impulse may cause contractions and movements of muscles, 
blood-vessels and viscera, or, it may be inhibitory in character and 
thus slow the heart, retard peristaltic action, etc. 

(b) One conveying impulses from the periphery to a centre. 
The impulse may be one of the special senses, sight, hearing, smell, 
etc., one of pain, heat, cold, etc. 

Classify nerves according to function and state the function of each 
class named. 

1. Afferent or sensory. 

2. Efferent or motor. 

See answer to preceding question. 

Describe the functions of the spinal cord. 

1. Conducts impulses from the periphery to the brain and vice 
versa. 

2. Seat of numerous reflex actions. 

3. Takes some part in coordination. 



132 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

What are the functions of the spinal nerves? 

The superior roots convey sensory impulses from the whole 
hody, except certain parts of the face. The inferior roots convey 
motor impulses to all of the voluntary muscles, also to the bladder, 
uterus, intestines, other hollow viscera, blood-vessels, and sweat- 
glands. 

What would be the effect of division of one of the inferior nerve roots 
of the spinal nerves? 
Motor paralysis would follow in the parts supplied by the nerve. 

What would be the effect if both nerve roots of the spinal nerves were 
cut? 
Sensory and motor paralysis would follow in the parts supplied 
by these branches. 

What is reflex action? Describe an experiment illustrating reflex 

action. 

Any involuntary action produced by a stimulus that is conveyed 

to the central nervous system and reflected to the periphery. If 

the foot of a frog, with its brain destroyed, is pinched, the leg will 

be drawn away from the irritant. 

Discuss the reflex functions of the spinal cord. 

In the spinal cord, there are a great number of reflex nerve cen- 
tres which are capable of acting independently to a greater or 
less extent. Each centre has an afferent and an efferent root and 
is able to generate impulses which are carried to the periphery 
without any assistance from the brain. This is shown by experi- 
ments conducted on a frog with the brain destroyed as described in 
the preceding answer. 

What is the difference in function between the superior and the inferior 
columns of the spinal cord? 
Through the superior column, impressions, such as temperature, 
pressure and muscular sense, are conveyed to the cerebrum. The 
inferior column conveys motor impulses to the body. The respira- 
tory and vasomotor fibres also pass through the inferior column. 
So it may be said that the superior column is an afferent channel 
and the inferior column an efferent channel. 

What is the difference between a motor nerve and a sensory nerve? 

A motor nerve carries motor impulses from a centre to the 
periphery (efferent). 

A sensory nerve carries impulses from the periphery to a centre 
(afferent). 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 133 

State the function of the phrenic nerve. 

It is the motor nerve to the diaphragm. 

Describe the effect of electric stimulation on a motor nerve. 
Muscular contraction follows. 

Name and describe the membranes of the brain. Give the function of 
each. 
The outer membrane, the dura mater, is dense and fibrous and 
serves a very valuable protective function. The arachnoid is a 
serous membrane applied against the inner face of the dura. It 
contains the subarachnoid fluid which equalizes pressure on the 
brain and saves it from jar and concussion. The pia mater, the 
most internal, is a thin but very vascular structure. It passes 
into all the convolutions of the surface of the brain and supplies 
it with blood. 

State the function of the cerebellum and describe the effect of its 
removal. 
The cerebellum presides over the coordination of body move- 
ments and equilibrium. If removed, the power of coordination is 
lost, muscular weakness ensues and disturbances in equilibrium 
follow. 

Locate the medulla oblongata. Mention four centres located in it. 

The medulla is located at the upper end of the spinal cord, be- 
tween it and the cerebrum, and rests on the basilar process. 

Centres located in the medulla are: the respiratory, vaso- 
motor, deglutition and vomiting. 

Discuss the functions of the medulla oblongata. 

Serves as a medium of transmission of motor and sensory im- 
pulses and contains centres for mastication and suckling, secretion 
of saliva, deglutition, vomiting, dilatation of the pupil, coughing, 
sneezing, closure of eyelids, contraction and relaxation of the blood- 
vessel walls, cardiac inhibition and respiration. There is also a 
centre which controls the glycogenic function of the liver. 

State the function of the cerebrum. 

The cerebrum is the seat of sensation, reasoning and will. It 
contains motor and sensory areas and the centres for sight, hearing 
and taste are located in it. 

Define (a) coordination, (b) augmentation, (c) inhibition, (d) autom- 
atism. 

(a) Harmony and rhythm in muscular movements. 

(b) The increasing of the action of nerve centres by afferent 
impulses. 



134 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

(c) Arrest or restraint of a process effected by nervous influence. 

(d) The power possessed by nerve centres to originate nervous 
impulses. 

How does the nervous system influence secretion? 

Through reflex action, as shown by the secretion of saliva pro- 
duced by the presence of food in the mouth, or of the gastric juice 
by food in the stomach. 

What are (a) voluntary movements, (b) reflex movements? 

(a) Movements under control of the will. 

(b) Involuntary movements produced by stimulation of a 
peripheral nerve. 

How many pairs of cranial nerves are there? Give the name and the 
function of any one pair. 
There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves. The first pair, olfac- 
tory, is concerned in the sense of smell. 

Give the function of the optic nerve. 

(The second pair of cranial nerves.) The nerve of sight. 

Give the function of the third pair of cranial nerves. What muscles 

does it supply? 

(The oculomotor.) The motor nerve to the eyeball. It supplies 

all the muscles of the eye, except the external rectus and superior 

oblique; it also supplies the muscle of the upper lid and sends 

fibres to the iris and ciliary muscle. 

State the function of the fourth pair of cranial nerves. 

(Patheticum.) The motor nerve of the superior oblique muscle 
of the eyeball. 

State the function of the fifth pair of cranial nerves. 

(Trifacial.) This is a mixed nerve, i.e., both motor and sensory. 
It supplies motor power to the muscles of mastication, sensation 
to the side of the face, lips, mouth, temple, part of the ear, cornea, 
conjunctiva, nasal mucous membrane and anterior two-thirds of 
the tongue. It also sends trophic fibres to the eyeball. 

What is the function of the sixth pair of cranial nerves? 

(Abducens.) Supplies motor power to the external rectus 
muscle of the eyeball. 

State the function of the seventh pair of cranial nerves. 

(Facial.) Motor nerve to the muscles of the middle ear, exter- 
nal ear, cheeks, lips, nostrils and orbicular muscles of the eye. 
Through its chorda tympani branch, it supplies the anterior por- 
tion of the tongue with taste and sends secretory fibres to the maxil- 
lary gland, and dilator fibres to the blood-vessels. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 135 

State the function of the eighth pair of cranial nerves. 

(Auditory.) Sense of hearing and maintenance of equilibrium 
through its connection with the semicircular canals. 

What is the function of the glossopharyngeal nerve? 

(Ninth pair of cranial nerves.) This is a mixed nerve; it sup- 
plies motor power to the muscles of the pharynx and sensory fibres 
to the posterior third of the tongue, the soft palate, part of the 
pharynx, and the anterior surface of the epiglottis. It is princi- 
pally concerned in deglutition and the sense of taste on the posterior 
third of the tongue. 

State the function of the pneumogastric, or vagus, nerve. 

(Tenth pair of cranial nerves.) It supplies sensation to the ex- 
ternal ear, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach and respiratory passEiges ; 
and motor power to the muscles of the pharynx, larynx, trachea, 
bronchi, oesophagus, stomach and intestines. 

It is the inhibitory nerve of the heart and contains vasomotor 
fibres for the lungs and trophic fibres for the lungs and heart. 

What is the function of the eleventh pair of cranial nerves? 

(Spinal accessory.) Motor nerve to the sternomaxillaris, mas- 
toidohumeralis, and the cervical and dorsal trapezius muscles. By 
giving motor fibres to the vagus, it has some control over the larynx 
and voice. 

State the function of the great hypoglossal nerve. 

(Twelfth cranial pair.) Motor nerve to the tongue. 

What nerves, afferent and motor, supply the larynx? 

Superior laryngeal branch of the vagus is the afferent or sen- 
sory nerve. It also supplies motor fibres to the cricothyroid muscle. 
The inferior laryngeal, or recurrent, branch of the vagus supplies 
all the muscles of the larynx, except the cricothjrroid, with motor 
power. 

What symptoms would ensue in case of a transverse section of the 

motor nerve supplying the arytenoid muscles on one side? 

Inspiratory dyspnoea, accompanied by a roaring or whistling 

sound due to paralysis of the muscles moving the vocal cord. The 

cord would hang free in the larynx obstructing the air current. 

Paralysis of this kind produces the disease called ''roaring." 

What are the functions of the sympathetic nervous system? 

The sympathetic nervous system supplies vasodilator and vaso- 
constrictor fibres to the blood-vessels, the viscera with motor and 
inhibitory fibres, accelerator fibres to the heart, dilator fibres to the 



136 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

pupil, secretory fibres to the sweat, salivary and sebaceous glands, 
motor fibres to the muscles of the hair, and influences the process 
of nutrition in general. 

Mention the three classes of sympathetic nerve ganglia, giving the 
function of each. 

1. Vertebral ganglia, afford connection with the cerebrospinal 
system. 

2. Collateral ganglia, including the cardiac, solar and mesenteric 
plexuses which send branches to the various organs, supplying them 
with accelerator, vasomotor and secretory fibres, and carrying from 
them afferent impulses. 

3. Terminal ganglia, fibres originating in the collateral ganglia 
and terminating in the tissues, control certain reflexes. 

Senses 

Name the appendages of the eye and state the function of each. 

Eyelashes: protective function; they give warnings of danger. 

Eyelids: two in number, protective covering. 

Membrana nictitans: third eyelid, removes foreign bodies. 

Meibomian glands: secrete an oily liquid to lubricate the edges 
of the lids and prevent the overflow of tears. 

Conjunctiva : a mucous membrane which provides a smooth glid- 
ing surface between the lids and the cornea. 

Caruncle: small, red elevation at the inner canthus, which 
directs the tears toward the puncta. 

Lachrymal apparatus: secrete and carry away the tears which 
lubricate the cornea and inner side of the lids. 

Ocular sheath : binds the structures of the orbit together. 

What is the function of the iris? Describe the innervation of the iris. 
The iris regulates the amount of light passing into the eye. Its 
circular fibres are supplied by the third pair of cranial nerves and 
its dilator fibres are innervated by the sympathetic. 

What structures in the horse's eye serves the purpose of the human 

eyebrow? Describe clearly the position, attachments and 

movements of this structure. 

The membrana nictitans. It is situated in the inner angle of 

the eye, and is continued posteriorly by a strong, adipose cushion 

which insinuates itself between all the muscles of the eyeball. When 

the recti muscles retract the eye in the orbit, this fatty cushion is 

forced outwardly and the membrana nictitans is forced forward 

over the eye. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 137 

State the function of the corpora nigra (pigmentary bodies of the iris). 
Assist in absorbing rays of light. 

Describe the process of focal accommodation. 

The crystalline lens becomes more convex for near objects be- 
cause the rays are more divergent. This convexity is brought about 
by the bulging of the lens when the tension on the capsule is lessened 
by the action of the ciliary muscle which contracts and draws for- 
ward the choroid coat and with it the ciliary processes. A reversal 
of this process will produce a lesser convexity of the lens and thus 
properly focus distant objects. 

What are the functions of the lachrymal secretion? 

It lubricates the conjunctiva, keeps the cornea brilliantly polished 
and washes away foreign bodies. 

Describe fully the function of the auditory nerve. 

Special sense of hearing and through its connection with the 
semicircular canals assists in maintaining the equilibrium of the 
body. 

How do the auditory sensations reach the brain? 

The tympanum receives the sound wave and transmits it through 
the chain of bones (malleus, incus and stapes) to the fenestra ovalis 
which imparts an impulse to the perilymph of the labyrinth; the 
perilymph carries the impulse through the vestibule and from 
here it is carried into the scala vestibuli of the cochlea. The vibra- 
tions pass through the spiral-shaped cochlea and set in motion the 
membrane of Reissner ; this causes the lymph in the cochlear canal 
to vibrate and reach the scala tympani. The lymph in this canal 
is now set in motion and affects the basilar membrane on which 
the organ of Corti rests. The auditory nerve ends in the organ of 
C'orti, so the impressions are carried from this organ to the brain. 

What is the function of the Eustachian tube? 

It allows an equalization of pressure on both sides of the mem- 
brani tympani. 

Name the four primary taste sensations. 
Sweet, bitter, acid and salt. 

What nerves are concerned in the sensation of taste? 

The gustatory branch of the fifth pair of cranial nerves, which 
receives fibres from the chorda tympani of the seventh pair, sup- 
plies the taste buds on the anterior two-thirds of the tongue. The 
posterior one-third is supplied by the glossopharyngeal. 



138 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

What three sorts of impressions are obtained through the cutaneous 
nerves ? 
Temperature, pain and pressure. 

The Foot 

What are the provisions for preventing concussion in the foot? 

1. The yielding articulation of the pedal joint. 

2. Expansion of the heels when in contact with the ground. 

3. The foot-pad, or frog. 

4. The slight descent of the pedal bone and sole, when weight 
is placed on the foot. 

What are the uses of the lateral cartilages? 

1. They form an elastic wall to the sensitive foot, and afford 
attachment to the vascular laminae. 

2. They carry the sensitive laminae outward when the hoof ex- 
pands and so prevent any disturbance of the union of the insensi- 
tive and sensitive laminae. 

3. They provide passage for the blood-vessels and their move- 
ments assist the venous circulation. 

4. They admit of expansion under the influence of the body 
weight. 

How does secretion occur from horny structures and what provisions 
are made for a freer secretion at given points? Name such 
points. 
From the lower edge of the coronary substance, white, proto- 
plasmic cells are poured out between the papillae; these cells are 
carried down and pressed between the sensitive leaves. As the 
horny leaves pass through the sensitive leaves, the vascular layer 
of the latter furnishes them with horny lamellae. 

The wall is thicker and longer at the toe and quarters than at 
the heels because it is at these regions that the greatest wear and 
tear occurs. The thinness at the heel corresponds to the jdelding 
power it possesses, and which is an essential part of the anticon- 
cussion mechanism. 

Mention the keratogenous tissues of the foot, giving the function of 
each. 

1. The coronary cushion secretes the wall. 

2. The velvety tissue secretes the sole and foot-pad (frog). 

3. The laminal tissue secretes the horny lamellse. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 139 

State the functions of the sensitive laminae or podophyllous tissue. 

It is the seat of tactile sense, secretes horny lamellae and the 
horny laminae to cover the pedal bone, thus providing support for 
the body weight. 

Define physiologic shoeing. 

Shoeing of the normal, or healthy foot, as contrasted with the 
special shoeing necessary when pathological conditions exist. It 
comprises the proper paring of the foot and careful adjustment of 
the shoe so that the bearing surface is the same as in the unshod 
foot, or in other words, as nature intended. 

Generation and Development 

State the function of the testicle. 

The production of semen, especially the generative element of 
the same, viz., spermatozoa. 
Describe fully the development and maturation of a Graafian follicle. 

The germinal epithelium covering the ovary grows into the body 
of the latter as a long cylinder of cells. These cells become cut off 
from any connection with the outside, and one cell (occasionally 
two) takes on the appearance of an ovum and the remaining cells 
become the membrana granulosa, enclosing it. A connective-tissue 
capsule, the tunica fibrosa, forms around this structure, and between 
it and the membrana granulosa a fluid, the liquor foUiculi, appears. 
This whole structure continues to grow and approach the surface 
where it remains until ovulation occurs. 

Describe the placenta and state its function. 

The placenta is a membranous structure within the uterus which 
establishes communication between the mother and foetus by means 
of the umbilical cord. In the mare, it is diffuse, i.e., the villi which 
intimately unite the chorion and uterus are scattered over the whole 
surface of the chorion. In the cow, the placenta is cotyledonary, 
i.e., the villi are gathered into tufts upon the surface of the chorion, 
and these tufts correspond to elevations of the mucous membrane 
of the uterus. In the dog and cat, the villi are arranged in a band- 
like manner over the chorion with a considerable space on either 
side free from villi. This form of placenta is called "zonary." 

Describe the decidua vera of the cat and state its function. 

Zonary type (see preceding answer). It establishes communi- 
cation between the mother and foetus through the umbilical cord. 

Give the source and character of uterine milk. 

This fluid is secreted by the uterine glands and lies between the 
villi of the chorion and the uterine mucous membrane. It is of a 



140 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

white, or rosy-white, creamy consistency and contains proteids, 
fat and a small proportion of ash. It takes part in providing nour- 
ishment for the foetus. 

Describe the mammary glands o£ the mare. 

The mammary glands of the mare are two hemispherical-shaped 
bodies, lying together on the median line in the posterior and in- 
ferior abdominal region, in the position of the scrotum in the male. 
They terminate below in a small prominence, the nipple, or teat, 
which is traversed by several sinuses that communicate above with 
the milk reservoir and open on their free extremity by two, three 
or four canals. The gland is covered externally by a fibrous coat 
which sends prolongations into its interior and over this coat is the 
skin. The body of the gland proper is made up of a highly devel- 
oped type of sebaceous glands. 

Give the average percentage composition of (a) cow's milk, (b) mare's 
milk. 

Cow Mare 

Water 87.00 91.8 

Solids ; 13.00 8.2 

Proteids 3.30 2.6 

Fat 4.00 .6 

Lactose 4.95 4.7 

Salts 75 .3 



PATHOLOGY* 

Define pathology. 

Pathology is that branch of medical science which treats of 
the essential nature of disease, especially of the structural and 
functional changes caused by disease. 

Special pathology deals with the pathologic processes in certain 
diseases, organs, or parts. 

How do infection, poison and nervous disorder, respectively, cause a 
rise of temperature? 
Infection by bacteria produces toxins which, being carried 
through the blood to the brain, stimulate the heat centres. Poisons 
are taken up by the blood and act the same way. Nervous dis- 
orders, by disturbing the process of metabolism, cause toxic prod- 
ucts, such as albumoses, peptones, or ferments to be found. These 
products are carried in the blood to the heat centres. 

Define the following terms: infection, disinfection, atrophy, oedema, 
immunity, anaemia, hyperaemia, cystitis, orchitis. 

Infection refers to the entrance into the system of a disease- 
producing microorganism capable of self-multiplication. 

Disinfection is the process of freeing from, or neutralizing, 
pathogenic germs or agents. 

Atrophy is a wasting or diminution in the size of a part. 

CEdema is a swollen condition of tissue caused by an excessive 
accumulation of the tissue fluid, lymph. 

Immunity is a condition of an animal or person in which there 
is an insensitiveness or insusceptibility to a certain disease. 

Ansimisi is a reduction in the quantity or quality of the blood, 
affecting the cellular elements or haemoglobin or both. 

Hyperaemia is a condition in which there is an excess of blood in 
a part of the body. 

Cystitis is the term applied to an inflammatory condition of the 
urinary bladder. 

Orchitis : inflammation of the testicles. 

Define primary and secondary lesion and illustrate by example. 

A primary lesion is a pathological condition produced at the 
point of attack by the causative agent (bacteria, trauma, etc.). If 
from this point pathogenic material is carried to other par's of 

* Unless otherwise stated all questions relate to the horse. 

141 



342 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

the body and changes are produced there, the later formed lesions 
are secondary. For example, from an abscess on the leg (primary 
lesion) infection may be carried to the lungs, liver, etc., and produce 
abscesses in these parts (secondary lesions). 

State what value you would give to each of the following agents in 
the development of an infectious disease: microbes, chill, 
electric tension, imperfect ventilation, impure water, de- 
cayed or indigestible foods, emanations from sewers, cess- 
pools or heaps of manure, impaired health or vigor from 
previous illness, fatigue, overwork, damp soils, exposure 
to hot summer sun. 
The first named agent, microbes, and it only, can produce the 
disease alone. The other agents can only act as accessory factors in 
lessening the resisting powers but none of them alone, or together, 
can produce an infectious disease without the causative/ factor, the 
microbe. 

What lesions and conditions would indicate that an animal had been 
killed by lightning? 

Blood is dark and uncoagulated, the muscles dark brownish-red> 
the endocardium stained by the altered blood and the heart muscle 
shows hemorrhagic infarcts in death by lightning. The tissues may 
be lacerated, showing hemorrhages. Branching, tree-like lines of 
singeing along the course of the current. Rapid decomposition with 
slight rigor mortis. 

Conditions aiding diagnosis are: fact of lightning storm; ani- 
mal being found under a tree which shows the effects of the current. 

What is meant by auto-intoxication? 

Auto-intoxication is a poisoning of the organism by substances 
which arise in the body itself through its own activity, that is, it 
is a self-poisoning. The poisoning is the result of the absorption 
of the waste products of metabolism or of the products of decom- 
position within the intestines. 

Define metastasis. Give examples. 

Metastasis is the transportation through the blood- or lymph- 
stream of a disease-producing agent and the production of disease 
at the point of deposit of such agent, e.g., living cells of tumors may 
be carried to distant parts and produce daughter tumors at the 
site of lodgement. Vegetable or animal parasites are carried in the 
blood-stream from one part to another, producing disease at their 
point of lodgement. The movement of emboli in the blood-vessels 
is an example of metastasis. 



' QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 143 

What is anaphylaxis ? 

Increased susceptibility to an infection or to the action of any 
foreign protein introduced into the body following a primary infec- 
tion. The opposite of immunity. 

Hypertrophy and Atrophy 

Describe (a) atrophy, (b) hypertrophy. Give the causes of each of 
these conditions. 

(a) Atrophy is a diminution in the size of an organ due to a 
diminution in size or disappearance of its individual elements. 
Causes: senility, impaired nutrition, pressure, disuse, and neuro- 
pathic. 

(b) Hypertrophy is an increase in the size of an organ, due 
either to an increase in the size or in the number of the individual 
elements. Causes: compensatory (overwork), lessened use (as in 
hoof or horn), congenital, neuropathic, lessened pressure, inflam- 
matory. 

Degenerations 

Differentiate fatty degeneration from fatty infiltration. 

Fatty degeneration is characterized by the degeneration of 
tissue cells and the presence therein of fat droplets, whereas in 
fatty infiltration no change occurs in the substance of the cell except 
it be from pressure of the fat globules without or inside of the cells. 

What is necrosis ? Name and define three kinds. 

Necrosis is the death of individual cells or groups of cells, as 
a result of which their function is forever lost. Coagulation-necrosis 
is characterized by the occurrence of coagulation of the fluids about 
the cells or of the cells themselves, due to the infiltration of blood- 
or fibrin-containing lymph. Liquefaction-necrosis is due to the 
necrotic parts becoming dissolved in the fluids present in the tis- 
sues. Gangrene is a form of necrosis in which the tissue is putrefied, 
showing an appearance similar to that occurring in burned tissues. 
There are two forms, dry and moist, depending upon the presence 
or absence of moisture. 

What is caseation-necrosis ? Where does it occur? 

Caseation-necrosis is a form of necrosis closely resembling 
coagulation-necrosis. It is characterized by either a hard or soft 
cheesy appearance in the necrotic area. It occurs most frequently 
in tubercular nodules. It is also seen in very cellular tumors and 
inflammatory exudates. 



144 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Define oedema and give its causes. 

(Edema is an infiltration of the tissues and serous cavities with 
a serous fluid, lymph. Causes: obstructions to the circulation of 
the blood or lymph, anaemia, changes in blood-vessel walls, dis- 
turbances of metabolism. 

Define (a) anasarca, and (b) calcification. 

(a) Anasarca is a serous infiltration (oedema) of the super- 
ficial portions of the body. 

(b) Calcification is a hardening of the tissues due to the deposits 
therein of granular masses of lime salts, particularly phosphates. 

Inflammation 
Define inflammation. 

Inflammation is the phenomena of tissue-reaction to injury. 

Describe the process of inflammation. Give the four cardinal symptoms 
of inflammation. 

Following injury to the tissue, there is an increased flow of blood 
to the part ; then occurs changes in the vascular walls, exudation of 
serum, diapedesis of leucocytes, and proliferation of the connective- 
tissue cells. This may be followed by subsidence of the hypergemia, 
regeneration, suppuration, necrosis or some other form of degener- 
ation. 

Cardinal symptoms of inflammation are: redness, heat, pain 
and swelling. 

State the pathologic blood and tissue changes in inflammation. 

See answer to preceding question. 

What is productive inflammation? 

Productive inflammation is a hyperplastic formation of con- 
nective tissue occurring in chronic inflammation. It is seen on 
serous surfaces and in certain organs as bone, liver, kidney, lung, 
etc. 

Define (a) abscess, (b) ulcer, (c) fistula. 

(a) A circumscribed collection of pus in the substance of a 
part or organ, usually formed by the disintegration of tissue. 

(b) An open suppurating wound accompanied by tissue 
destruction. 

(c) A suppurating duct-like cavity extending into the tissues. 

Name four inflammatory exudates. 
Serum, fibrin, pus and blood. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



145 



Tumors 

Classify tumors and give an example of each class. 

Connective-tissue tumors, as fibroma and sarcoma. 
Specialized tissue tumors, as epithelioma and adenoma. 
Mixed tissue tumors, as dermoid cysts. 

Describe the pathologic difference between a malignant tumor and a 
non-malignant tumor. 



Malignant Tumors. 
Non-circumscribed. 
Infiltrate neighboring tissues. 
Rapid growth. 
Spread of metastasis. 
Undergo degenerative changes. 
Cachexia present. 



"N on-Malignant Tumors. 
Circumscribed. 

Do not infiltrate neighboring tissues. 
Develop slowly. 
Non-metastatic. 
Seldom degenerate. 
Cachexia absent. 



What is cancer? Name the varieties. 

Cancer or carcinoma is a malignant tumor made up chiefly 
of epithelial cells. It is characterized by an infiltrative growth 
and the formation of metastases. Three varieties: squamous epi- 
theliomata, cylindrical epitheliomata, and glandular-cell cancers. 

What is melanosis ? Give the cause of melanosis. 

Melanosis is an abnormal deposit of black matter in various parts 
of the body. The color is due to the pigment melanin. This con- 
dition, which is seen almost exclusively in old gray horses, is usually 
associated with tumor formation. It is thought to be due to the 
breaking down of red blood-corpuscles in the spleen and liver, 
thus liberating melanin from the hgemoglobin. 

In what animals are melanosarcomata most commonly found? De- 
scribe the gross appearance of melanosarcomata. 
Horses, especially gray-colored ones. The tumors usually de- 
velop in the region of the root of the tail and the anus, although 
no tissue seems to be exempt. They appear as small nodules of a 
soft or hard consistency and vary in size from that of a walnut to 
a man's fist or larger. The cut surface is uniformly black or 
dark-brown and soils the hands similar to shoe-blacking. 

Name the different types of sarcoma. What tissue does sarcoma 
resemble ? 
1. Round-celled sarcoma, 
a. Small round-celled. 
10 



146 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

b. Large round-celled. 

c. Lymphosarcoma. 

d. Alveolar sarcoma. 

2. Spindle-celled sarcoma, 

a. Small. 

b. Large. 

3. Giant-celled sarcoma. 

4. Melanosarcoma. 

Sarcomata resemble embryonal connective tissue. 

Define (a) neuroma, (b) angioma, (c) myoma. 

(a) A tumor composed largely of nerve substance. 

(b) A tumor made up of blood-vessels. 

(c) A tumor made up of muscular elements. 

Classify cysts and give an example of each class. 

1. Retention cyst, as seen in the kidney, sebaceous glands, 
mucous glands, etc., due to obstruction of the excretory duct. 

2. Degeneration cyst, due to liquefaction of the tissues as in the 
brain, thyroids and tumors. 

3. Parasitic cysts, as the ecchinococcic variety. 

4. Foreign-body cyst, seen when a bullet or other foreign body 
is encapsulated by connective tissue. 

Define cysts and name the varieties. 

A cyst is a circumscribed cavity, shut off from the surrounding 
tissues, by a connective-tissue membrane or by tissue of a more 
complex structure, the contents of which differ in nature from the 
capsule. (See answer to preceding question.) 

Blood 

Define leucocythaemia, polycythemia, phagocytosis. 

Leucocythsemia, or leukaemia, is a fatal disease, characterized 
by a marked increase in the number of leucocytes in the blood, to- 
gether with enlargement and proliferation of the lymphoid tissue 
of the spleen, lymphatic glands and bone-marrow. 

Polycythagmia is an increase in the number of red blood-cor- 
puscles in the blood. 

Phagocytosis is the term applied to the destruction of bacteria 
in the body by the phagocytes. (Phagocytes are certain cells, chiefly 
leucocytes, which possess the power of taking up and destroying 
bacteria by intracellular digestion.) 



QUESTIONS AxND ANSWERS 147 

What is leucoc5^osis ? Enumerate the diseases with their stages in 
which leucocytosis may be expected. 

Leucocytosis is a temporary increase in the number of leucocytes 
in the blood. It occurs in : 

Pneumonia, variola (suppurative stage), pyaemia, septicaemia, 
actinomycosis, trichinosis, glanders, articular rheumatism (acute), 
cerebrospinal meningitis (suppurative stage), endometritis, peri- 
carditis, peritonitis, pleurisy, erysipelas, dermatitis, gangrenous 
conditions, abscesses of all kinds and situations, etc. 

State the relation of leucocytosis to phagocytosis. How may phago- 
cytosis be stimulated? 
Phagocytosis is accomplished principally by leucocytes, there- 
fore leucocytosis greatly augments phagocytic activity. 

Phagocytosis may be stimulated by injecting products of bac- 
terial growth into an animal. 

Define leukaemia and ischaemia. 

Leukaemia, same as leucocythaemia. See above. 
Ischgemia is a local anaemia. 

State the difference between an ante-mortem and a post-mortem blood- 
clot such as is found in the blood. 
An ante-mortem clot is a yellowish translucent mass resembling 
chicken fat, clotting occurred slowly. A post-mortem clot is a 
dark-red, homogeneous, gelatinous mass; the blood coagulated 
quickly before the red blood-corpuscles had time to settle. 

Bones and Joints 

Describe the reparative process of a fractured long bone. 

At first hemorrhage occurs in the marrow and at the line of 
fracture, then occurs hyperaemia and cellular infiltration of the 
periosteum, marrow and bone; cell division and proliferation of 
the marrow, periosteum and vascular endothelium; deposition of 
calcium salts and formation of bone and cartilage. The name 
callus is applied to the new-formed tissue, and is distinguished as 
periosteal and myelogenous. 

Give the pathology of osteoporosis. 

The bones, especially those of the lower jaw, are thickened. The 
bones of the extremities and articulations are often enlarged. In 
some cases the articular cartilages become ulcerated. The bony 
cortex is thin, spongy, brittle and easily fractured. There is an 
increase in the vascular and fibrous tissues without any increase 



148 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

in bone substance. If cachexia is present, the bone-marrow is pale, 
gelatinous, and even watery. Anaemia, cachexia and oedematous 
infiltration of the body is present. Atrophy and fatty degeneration 
of the muscles attached to the affected bones. Recent or old frac- 
tures, showing callous formation, may be present. 

What are the lesions of arthritis chronica deformans tarsi (spavin) ? 

The lesions, confined usually to the articular cartilage of the 
cuneiform and of the upper part of the metatarsus, though some- 
times the scaphoid and other bones of the hock are involved, con- 
sist of ulceration, abrasions, and at the borders of the articular 
surfaces, rugged, uneven swellings produced by the thickening of 
the articular cartilage which is ossified. Under the microscope, the 
intercellular substance is seen to be fibrillated and the cartilage cells 
to be undergoing multiplication. The synovial membrane is thick- 
ened and vascular. Partial or complete ankylosis of the articular 
surfaces and ossification of the ligaments are seen. 

What is caries? 

The molecular decay or death of bone (teeth) in which it becomes 
softened, discolored and porous. It corresponds to ulceration in 
soft tissues. 

Give the causes of dental caries. 

By the fermentation of starchy foods in the mouth, brought 
about through the action of bacteria, acids are produced which 
soften the enamel and permit the entrance of other bacteria into 
the dentin, producing caries. 

Define (a) periostitis, (b) periarthritis, (c) arthritis. 

(a) Inflammation of the covering of bone (periosteum). 

(b) Inflammation of the structures surrounding a joint. 

(c) Inflammation of a joint, characterized by great pain, heat, 
redness and swelling. 

Heart and Blood-vessels 

Name lesions that may be found in chronic heart disease. 

Thickening of the endocardium, borders of valves, and of the 
chordae tendinae. Insufficiency of the valves. Heart wall thickened, 
solid, arid contains grayish- white spots or streaks (scars). Fatty 
degeneration of muscle fibres. 

Give the causes and lesions of cardiac hypertrophy. 

Causes: severe work, disturbance in circulation requiring more 
force in the heart action, as chronic interstitial nephritis, lung dis- 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 149 

eases, valvular diseases, etc., tumors or adherent pericardium creat- 
ing pressure from without, disease of the heart muscle itself. 

Lesions : increased volume and weight of the heart ; walls thick- 
ened, hard and firm. 

What pathological changes may follow mitral stenosis? 

Hypertrophy of the left auricle, pulmonary congestion, hyper- 
trophy of the right ventricle and right auricle ; pulmonary oedema, 
bronchial catarrh and hepatic congestion. 

Describe the lesions of pericarditis. 

Acute form: fibrinous membranes on the pericardium; fluid 
exudate, clear (or cloudy from pus), in varying amounts distends 
the pericardial sac. Passive hypercemia of the lungs and liver and 
cedematous infiltrations may occur. 

Chronic form: connective-tissue proliferation, thickening and 
adhesions of the pericardial sac. 

What is the difference between active and passive congestion? 

Active congestion arises from an increase in the arterial supply 
on account of the dilatation of the lumen of the blood-vessels to the 
part. Passive congestion arises through a retardation or obstruc- 
tion of the flow of blood from the veins and a passive yielding of 
the vessel-walls to intravascular pressure. 

Define (a) embolism, (b) aneurism, (c) lymphangioma, (d) myocar- 
ditis. 

(a) The plugging of a blood-vessel by a clot or obstruction 
which has been brought to its place by the blood-current. 

(b) A sac formed by the dilatation of the walls of an artery and 
filled with blood. It may be a true aneurism which contains one 
or more of the coats of the artery, or a false aneurism in which all 
of the coats are absent, the blood being retained by the surrounding 
tissues. 

(c) A tumor composed of dilated lymphatic vessels. 

(d) Inflammation of the heart muscle. 

Discuss verminous aneurisms of the cceliac or mesenteric arteries of 
the horse. 

They are due to the larvse of the sclerostoma equinum which 
enter the blood-stream from the intestines, are carried to the coeliac 
artery and enter the vasa vasorum of the same and cause infarction 
in the media of the vessel, and then meso-arteritis, or peri- and 
endarteritis. This leads to formation of a thrombus and narrowing 
of the lumen of the vessel, providing dilatation is not commensurate 
with the diminution in calibre. The inflamed vessel-wall, losing its 



150 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

tone, yields more readily to the internal tension and as a result an 
enormous distention and thickening of the wall occurs. 

Respiratory Organs 

What pathologic changes occur in the air-cells during pulmonary 
hepatization? 

Hypergemia, smaller or larger hemorrhagic foci, extravasation 
of blood-serum with white and red blood-corpuscles into the alveoli. 

Describe the post-mortem appearance of each stage of pneumonia. 

First stage (congestive) : Capillaries distended and the alveoli 
filled with serous fluid containing endothelial and red blood-cells. 

Second stage (red hepatization) : Fibrinous exudate and red 
blood-cells in the air sacs, coagulation of same ; lung is consolidated, 
dark-red and friable, does not collapse when thorax is opened and 
shows the imprint of the ribs; sinks in water; the cut surface 
appears granular from the projection of fibrin plugs. 

Third stage (gray hepatization) : The red cells are gradually 
destroyed and absorbed, and leucocytes predominate, giving the 
cut surface a gray appearance. 

Fourth stage (resolution) : The exudate has undergone fatty 
degeneration and liquefaction; the cut surface is smooth and 
exudes a whitish fluid; the lung is approaching normal color and 
condition. 

Give the post-mortem appearance of gangrene of the lungs. 

In the anterior and inferior portions of the lungs, gangrenous 
foci are found, which appear dirty-brown, red or yellowish-brown, 
and consist of a soft mass of a very disagreeable, sweetish, foul odor. 
The bronchi contain liquefied or soft masses of a similar color, and 
smell. The mucosa of the bronchi is slate-gray in color. The 
internal surface of the cavities formed is ragged and covered with 
a friable, stinking, mushy mass. If the cavity is near the pleura 
or breaks through the same, purulent pleurisy may be present. 
Between the foci the pulmonary tissue shows a catarrhal or fibrinous 
pneumonia. 

Describe the post-mortem lesions of pulmonary emphysema (heaves). 
The lungs are enlarged, soft, less elastic and paler in color. 
Their surface often shows the imprint of the ribs. Air vesicles can 
be seen with the naked eye. Between the vesicles are large air 
spaces due to rupture of the walls. These air spaces often produce 
bulging of the serous coat in various places when beneath the 
pleura. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 151 

Give the post-mortem appearance of acute diffused pleuritis. 

Hypera?mia, surface of the pleura is rough, lustreless and dry. 
The exudate composed of blood-corpuscles and fibrin covers the 
surface of the pleura like a veil. In some cases a serofibrinous exu- 
date covers the surface with a thicker, friable, moist, loose mem- 
brane. Purulent and hemorrhagic exudates may be present. The 
pleuritic cavity may contain a considerable amount of a serous 
fluid which compresses the lungs. 

Describe the post-mortem appearance of the lungs in pleuropneumonia. 

(It is taken for granted that the interrogator is referring to 
contagious pleuropneumonia.) This disease is characterized by 
interstitial pneumonia with secondary hepatization of the lungs and 
an exudative pleuritis. The cut surface shows a pale yellow net- 
work formed by an increase in the interlobular connective tissue ; 
a clear serous fluid oozes from the cut surface. Between the network 
of connective tissue the lung tissue is hepatized. The bronchial 
walls show serous infiltration and their lumen contains a fibrinous 
exudate. The pleura is lustreless, injected and covered with a 
veil-like exudate of fibrin ; a large amount of exudate in the pleural 
cavity. 

Give the symptoms and post-mortem lesions of hydrothorax. 

For symptoms, see diseases of the respiratory organs, page 191. 

Lesions: A large amount of a clear, light yellow, or slightly 
turbid fluid in the thoracic cavity. The lungs show compression 
to an extent dependent upon the amount of the fluid present. The 
pleura may be normal or thickened and cloudy. More or less 
congestion present. 

What is atelectasis? 

An airless condition of the lungs seen in the foetus ; also seen in 
later life due to pressure of a pleural effusion or blocking of the 
smaller bronchial tubes with mucus. 

Describe the structural changes in the nervous and muscular tissue in 
a case of roaring. 

The recurrent nerve is reduced in size and gray in color, indicat- 
ing degeneration. The posterior crico-arytenoid, the lateral crico- 
arytenoid and the transverse arytenoid muscles show pale yellow 
streaks and degeneration of their fibres. 

Describe the appearance of the lungs in bronchopneumonia. 

This is a lobular affection, with scattered areas of consolidation. 
These areas are not as firm as in croupous pneumonia. The cut 
surface is grayish-red or grayish-yellow and not granular, but 



152 ' VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

smooth and moist; on pressure a frothy serum exudes from the 
healthy portion and a grayish-yellow fluid from the diseased areas. 
The lobules stand out prominently and may contain pus foci. 

Abdominal Organs 

Describe the post-mortem appearance of the intestines in catarrhal 
enteritis. 

Acute form: The intestinal mucosa is reddened, swollen and 
covered with slimy mucus mixed with dead epithelial cells. Small 
hemorrhages may be present. The submucosa is infiltrated with 
serum. The villi are swollen and crowded together giving a velvety 
appearance. Peyer's patches are swollen and may discharge pus 
and even become ulcerated. 

Chronic form: The mucosa is darkly pigmented (sometimes 
pale), thickened and covered with an excess of mucus; the thicken- 
ing may extend into the submucosa, giving a firm leathery feeling 
to the part. The villi are hypertrophied and Peyer's patches con- 
gested and ulcerated. 

Describe enteroliths. 

These are hard, dense, stony concretions found in the intestines 
and range in weight from one ounce to 25 pounds. They resemble 
billiard balls, or sometimes are pyramidal in shape from being 
worn off on the sides. Their principal constituent is ammonio- 
magnesium phosphate which is largely derived from wheat and rye 
bran feeds. Enteroliths are important because of obstructions and 
erosions which they produce in the intestines. 

Give the pathology of peritonitis. 

The peritoneum is congested, dull and opaque; fibrinous mem- 
branes cover the surface. Serous fluid may be present in large 
amounts (40 litres) in the peritoneal cavity; later this fluid may 
be mixed with fibrin flocculi and pus. Acute peritonitis may be- 
come chronic with the development of connective tissue under the 
fibrinous membrane. In this case the peritoneum becomes thick- 
ened and the surface of the organs is covered with thick layers of 
connective tissue. 

Describe the appearance of a cirrhotic liver. 

In atrophic cirrhosis there is an increase in connective tissue 
with compression of the parenchyma. The tissue is of a tough, 
leather-like consistency and grates when cut. The organ is reduced 
in size, the surface irregular and granular or nodular; the serous 
covering is thickened. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS - 153 

In hypertrophic cirrhosis, the liver is enlarged, the cut surface 
as well as the outer surface appears smooth or slightly granular 
and greenish-yellow in color; the consistency is hard, due to the 
increase in the interlobular connective tissue; there is no tendency 
toward contraction. 

Give the pathology of icterus. 

There is a yellow discoloration of the skin and mucous mem- 
branes, particularly noticeable in the conjunctiva; the urine is 
brownish or greenish in color and all of the organs of the body, 
except nerve tissue, may be stained yellow. The bile capillaries 
of the liver are distended with bile, and pigmentation of the liver- 
cells is noted. Constipation is present and the stools are dry, hard, 
pale and fetid. 

In what diseases does enlargement of the spleen occur? 

Anthrax, Texas fever, piroplasmosis of dogs, and leukagmia. 

Differentiate an ante-mortem from a post-mortem tympanites in 
bovines at autopsy. 
In ante-mortem tympanites, the lungs are compressed, dark-red 
and full of blood. The veins of the subcutaneous connective tissue 
are filled to their utmost with dark-red, possibly uncoagulated blood. 
Signs of death from suffocation, such as striate and punctate hemor- 
rhages into the serous membranes, especially in the pleura and peri- 
cardium, are seen. In post-mortem tympanites, none of these con- 
ditions are found. The blood is evenly distributed, except perhaps 
a hypostatic congestion in the side on which the cadaver lies. 

Genito-urinary Organs 

Define (a) haematuria, (b) haemoglobinuria. 

(a) Blood in the urine. 

(b) Haemoglobin in the urine without blood-corpuscles. 

Name the different varieties of urinary casts and state the conditions 
in which each is found. 

Casts are albuminous exudates from the blood, with the addition 
of transformed or destroyed epithelium. There are six varieties 
of true casts: 1, hyaline; 2, epithelial; 3, blood; 4, granular; 
5, fatty; 6, waxy. 

The first three are found in acute parenchymatous nephritis. 
Granular casts are found in chronic parenchymatous nephritis. 
Fatty and waxy casts are secondary products and only found in 
nephritis of long standing (chronic interstitial). 



154 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Describe the gross pathology of (a) acute parenchymatous nephritis, 
(b) chronic interstitial nephritis. 

(a) Kidneys are soft, friable and the capsule strips easily. The 
cut surface is streaked with hypergemic vessels, especially in the 
medulla; in the cortex the Malpighian corpuscles stand out prom- 
inently. 

(b) The kidney is small and its surface irregular; the capsule 
is thickened and strips with difficulty, owing to the productive 
growth and extension of same into the substance of the gland. 
On section the substance is firm and pale in color. 

Give the pathology of a cystic ovary. 

In a large majority of cases, cystic ovaries follow peri-oophoritis, 
which thickens the capsule and prevents the ovisac from rupturing. 
The peri-oophoritis may be caused by extension of infection or 
inflammation in cases of endometritis, granular venereal disease, 
etc. A small number of cases may be attributed to a persistent 
corpus luteum. The enlarged ovary is uniformly rounded and 
smooth or it may be marked by irregular bulgings, giving it a lobu- 
lated appearance. The organ is very vascular and covered by the 
thickened peritoneum. One or more closely adherent cysts of 
various sizes, containing a clear, yellow or brownish-red liquid, 
may be seen. 

What is your idea of the pathology of azoturia? 

This disease is due to an auto-intoxication. The lesions are 
characterized by the following conditions: The lumbar, psoas and 
gluteus muscles appear swollen and gray or grayish-yellow in color 
like fish-meat or boiled meat. Occasionally, these muscles are rup- 
tured and contain hemorrhages. They are friable and tear easily. 
The kidneys show cloudy swelling and even severe parenchymatous 
degeneration. The heart muscle shows the same changes as the 
muscles but in a lesser degree. The bladder contains brownish-red 
or coffee-colored urine. In cases of long standing, lesions of septi- 
caemia, due to decubital gangrene, are seen. 

Name five diseases that may affect the udder of the cow. 

Mastitis, tuberculosis, actinomycosis, carcinoma, eczema. 

Define (a) oophoritis, (b) orchitis, (c) metritis. 

(a) Inflammation of the ovary. 

(b) Inflammation of the testicle, 
(e) Inflammation of the uterus. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 155 

Nervous System 

Define (a) phrenitis, (b) meningitis, (c) pachymeningitis, (d) lepto- 
meningitis, (e) apoplexy. 

(a) Inflammation of the braiu. 

(b) Inflammation of the meninges, the covering of the brain 
and cord. 

(e) Inflammation of the dura mater, the outer covering of the 
brain and cord. 

(d) Inflammation of the pia and arachnoid membranes. 

(e) Paralysis resulting from rupture of a cerebral blood-vessel. 

Give the pathologic changes in the brain of a horse suffering with 
chronic hydrocephalus (dummy). 
There is a dilatation of the lateral ventricles and anterior part 
of the third ventricle by an excessive amount of fluid. The base of 
the cerebrum and the olfactory lobes have their internal cavity 
distended so that they appear like bladders of fluid. The cerebral 
hemispheres are flattened and their convolutions nearly effaced. 
There is degeneration and softening of the compressed nervous tissue 
and anaemia of the brain. 

What are the post-mortem appearances of anaemia of the brain? 

Meninges are pale and their vessels collapsed. The cortex is 
pale and the line of demarcation between it and the white matter 
is indistinct. On section, minute points of blood are seen. 

What faulty conditions in the food tend to produce paralysis? 
Moulds, rusts, smuts and fermentation. 

Muscles 

What parasite affects the muscles of hogs ? Name the disease and state 
the lesions produced. 
Trichina spiralis produces trichinosis. The parasites- invade the 
muscles and become encysted therein in the shape of an oval which 
is grayish- white in appearance. Within this oval body, which is 
only one-twenty-fifth of an inch in length, the parasite is coiled up 
in a spiral shape. The muscle fibres lose their diagonal striation; 
the sarcolemma is dilated, covering the cyst; the connective tissue 
is infiltrated and the capillaries are distended. The cut surface of 
the muscle is cloudy, a pale-gray color and transparent. 

Eye 

Describe the pathologic changes occurring in an attack of periodic 
ophthalmia. 
The conjunctiva is injected. The injected blood-vessels of the 



156 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

cornea have an aborescent appearance. Back of the cornea and in 
the lower part of the anterior part of the eye is a fibrinopurulent 
exudate. The iris is swollen and adherent to the lens or cornea, 
constituting synechia.. There is swelling and tenderness of the 
outer rim of the cornea (cyclitis). Infiltration of the lens with 
lymph renders it opaque. Exudates beneath the retina detach it 
from the choroid. The whole condition is often spoken of as 
* ' iridocyclochoroiditis. ' ' 

Skin 
Give the pathology of acne. 

Acne is an inflammation of the sebaceous glands and hair fol- 
licles. It appears as small nodules varying in size from a millet 
seed to a pea. These nodules may contain serum or pus and the 
hair covering them falls out. Scabs may cover the nodules which 
upon being removed leave a raw ulcerating spot beneath. Chronic 
indurative dermatitis often follows or accompanies this condition. 

What is dandruff? 

Dandruff is an exudation product, seen as small bran-like scales, 
occurring in superficial inflammation of the skin with an excessive 
sebaceous secretion. 

Name the stages of eczema. 

Erythematous, papular, vesicular, moist, pustular and scaly. 

Name the pathologic conditions that may affect the equine foot. 

Pododermatitis, including corns and canker, navicular bursitis, 
fracture of the navicular bone, ossification of the lateral cartilage 
(side-bone), necrosis of the lateral cartilage (quittor), laminitis, 
inflammation of the ligaments of the coronet joint, ringbone, etc. 

Give the pathology of acute and chronic laminitis. 

Acute: Hypergemia of the sensitive laminae; exudation, loosen- 
ing the hoof from the matrix ; the exudate may consist of serum, or 
serum and pus. The sole may be "dropped" owing to descent of 
the OS pedis. Separation of the hoof from the coronary band may 
occur and allow the exudate to escape. 

Chronic: The hoof wall shows a number of concentric rings, 
producing irregularities of same ; the sole is * ' dropped ' ' and the os 
pedis displaced downward ; the coronet joint shows abnormal dorsal 
flexion. The white line is greatly thickened and a thin purulent 
exudate covers its surface. The laminae are not as hyperaemic as in 
the acute form. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 157 

Infectious Diseases 

What tissue changes may be found in chronic glanders and farcy ? 

Lesions are most frequently found on the respiratory mucous 
membrane, in the lungs, lymph-glands, spleen and skin, and occur 
in two forms, (1) as circumscribed nodules with the formation 
of ulcers and cicatrices; and (2) as diffuse or infiltrated lesions. 

The nodules resemble somewhat the neoplasms of tuberculosis; 
they show cell proliferation in nests in a fibrous stroma, varying 
in size from a grain of sand upward; have a central degeneration 
containing fatty debris ; open on the surface forming ulcers, showing 
a grayish necrotic centre and surrounded by a ragged border ; cica- 
trices may form. In the lungs the nodules give rise to a lobular 
pneumonia, interlobular and peribronchial inflammation; the cen- 
tral mass becomes yellowish and caseated from glandular and fatty 
degeneration; the periphery may be bounded by a dense fibroid 
envelope or show only an area of congestion. In the skin there 
is an infiltration and proliferation of lymphoid cells which cause 
an eruption of rounded papules that degenerate and soften and 
form superficial ulcers (farcy). Sometimes the nodules undergo 
fibroid degeneration and fail to ulcerate ; diffuse engorgements and 
extensive swellings occur in the subcutaneous connective tissue, due 
to infiltration of lymph ; hyperplasia of lymph- vessels. 

The regional lymphatic glands are always involved, showing 
hypertrophy, congestion, serous infiltration and cell proliferation, 
and often caseated centres. The spleen and liver may be the seat 
of nodules. 

Describe the appearance of a typical nasal ulcer in glanders. 

At the first the ulcers are round, regular and smoothly bordered, 
but later, as a result of progressive tissue destruction, they become 
irregular with raised borders, ragged edges, pale-yellow, with a 
lardaceous base covered with pus and detritus or, eventually, a 
brownish crust. Larger ulcers are formed by the coalescence of 
small ones. The shallow ulcers may heal without any visible 
changes, but the deeper ones, after granulating, leave a radiating, 
star-shaped cicatrix. 

What are the known lesions of rabies? 

Congestion of fauces, pharynx and larynx; cyanosis of the 
mucous membrane of the mouth ; foreign bodies, but no food in the 
stomach, and the mucous membrane of the latter is congested or 
actively inflamed. The foregoing conditions are usually found in 
all cases of rabies, but cannot be called specific of the disease. The 



158 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

following are specific: brain congestion; Negri bodies in the gan- 
glion cells of the hippocampus, and other brain cells ; proliferation 
of the endothelial cells in the capsules of the Gasserian and plexi- 
form ganglia. 

What is the pathology of foot and mouth disease? 

In mild cases the lesions are slight and may be overlooked. 
In more severe cases, hypergemia and oedema are noted. Catarrhal 
rhinitis and pneumonia, and dilatation of the heart; the heart 
muscle may show degeneration and hemorrhagic infarcts. In 
some cases hemorrhagic gastro-enteritis is a prominent lesion; 
ulcers in the stomachs of cattle; these ulcers rarely extend deeper 
than the mucosa. Vesicles are seen on the feet, between the digits, 
and may extend into the deeper structures, causing sloughing of the 
hoof and necrosis of the bone. 

Describe the appearance of a case of infectious lymphangitis, 

(All cases of lymphangitis are probably of infectious origin. 
Presuming that the interrogator refers to the so-called ^'epizootic 
lymphangitis," the following answer is given.) 

It is characterized by red exuberant skin nodules (buttons, 
boils) which burst and discharge a thick, creamy, yellowish or 
bloody pus. The neighboring lymph plexus swells into corded lines, 
with nodules or abscesses at irregular intervals. The infection ex- 
tends to, and implicates the lymph-glands of the region affected and 
pygemia may follow. The disease is caused by a yeast fungus, 
cryptococcus farciminosus, also known as saccharomyces farci- 
minosus. 

A disease, caused by a sporothrix, called ' ' sporothricosis, " pre- 
sents practically the same picture and is frequently mistaken for 
the former disease. Epizootic lymphangitis is unknown in this 
country. 

Give the post-mortem lesions of Texas fever. 

Putrefaction of carcass occurs rapidly. Icteric coloration of 
mucous membranes and tissues due to hsemoglobinsemia. Ticks may 
be found on the body and occasionally tufts of hair matted with 
blood. Hemorrhages beneath the skin and into the endocardium. 
The right ventricle is distended with blood and the left ventricle 
contracted. Liver enlarged from congestion; the spleen engorged 
with blood ; the kidneys cedematous and blood-stained. The bladder 
is petechiated and contains bloody urine. Congestion of the mucosa 
of the digestive tract. The blood thin and watery with hgemoglo- 
binaemia present. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 159 

Describe the post-mortem lesions of anthrax. 

In rapidly fatal cases, changes in the blood and tissues are often 
so little marked, that, after the engorged spleen and infiltrated 
internal organs are removed, the carcass appears fit for consump- 
tion as food. In more protracted cases, the blood is dark, tissues 
brown or yellow, the heart muscle pale; liver enlarged, soft,. pale 
and hemorrhagic; spleen greatly enlarged or ruptured; lymph- 
glands hyper^emic; serosa petechiated; the bacterium anthrax is 
readily demonstrated in blood smears. 

Describe the post-mortem lesions of hemorrhagic septicaemia. 

Widely distributed areas of hemorrhage, varying in size from a 
pin point to several inches in diameter. Blood extravasations in 
the subcutem and intramuscular tissues, in the lungs, stomach and 
intestinal walls, lymph-glands, endocardium, myocardium, and peri- 
cardial sac. The spleen is usually normal except, perhaps, a few 
hemorrhagic areas on its surface. The central nervous system may 
occasionally show hemorrhages, especially in the dura. In animals 
recently dead, the blood is lighter in color than normal. When 
decomposition occurs, the blood is black and tarry, but reddens 
after exposure to the air. Cultures from the tissues reveal the 
causative factor, bacterium bovisepticus. 

What tissues are most commonly affected by tuberculosis? 

Lungs, liver, intestines, generative organs and the lymphatic 
glands adjoining these organs, especially the mesenteric, portal, 
mediastinal and those about the head; serous membranes — peri- 
toneum, pleura, meninges and synovial. 

Describe a miliary tubercle. 

The term ** miliary tubercle" was originally applied to tubercles 
which approximated in size a millet seed, but now is applied to 
various sizes of new-formed tuberculous nodules, larger or smaller, 
which show a central necrotic mass of one or more giant-cells sur- 
rounded by a proliferation of epitheloid cells and outside of this a 
collection of lymphocytes. It appears as a gray, translucent body 
and, in properly stained specimens, the tubercle bacillus may be 
seen. As the central necrotic mass increases in size, it becomes 
caseated or calcified and a connective-tissue stroma of a fibrous 
nature may encapsulate the lesion; it then becomes an old, yellow, 
or crude tubercle. 



160 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Name three characteristic lesions of each of the following diseases: 
hog cholera, anthrax, glanders. 
Hog cholera : button ulcers in the intestines, hemorrhagic areas 
and enlargement of the spleen and lymph-glands. 

Anthrax: Enlarged spleen, hemorrhages, black tarry blood, 
showing little tendency to coagulate. 

Glanders : Typical nodules in lungs, ulcers and star-shaped cica- 
trices on the nasal mucous membrane, hyperplasia of lymph-glands. 

Bacteriology 

Classify bacteria and give the name of the classification used. 
Migula 's classification : 
I. Lower bacteria. 

A. Coccacege. 

1. Streptococcus. 

2. Micrococcus. 

3. Sarcina. 

4. Planococcus. 

5. Planosarcina. 

B. Bacteriacese. 

1. Bacterium. 

2. Bacillus. 

3. Pseudomonas. 

C. Spirillacese. 

1. Spirosoma. 

2. Microspira. 

3. Spirillum. 

4. Spirochaeta. 
II. Higher bacteria. 

A. Chlamydobacteriacese. 

1. Streptothrix. 

2. Phragmidothrix. 

3. Crenothrix. 

4. Cladothrix. 

5. Thiothrix. 

B. Beggiatocese. 

1. Beggiatoa. 

Define (a) spore, (b) flagella, (c) complement. 

(a) The reproductive element of bacteria. Spores are very resist- 
ant to the influence of temperature and the action of chemical agents. 

(b) Whip-like processes attached to the ends of, or all over, 
certain microorganisms. They impart the power of motility to the 
bacteria. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 161 

(c) A thermolabile substance present in normal blood-serum, 
AA'hich influences the action of the immune body. (See diagnosis of 
glanders by the fixation of the complement test, page 167.) 

Differentiate the terms anaerobic and aerobic and give an example 
of each. 
Anaerobic is the term applied to bacteria that can live in the 
absence of air. There are two forms, facultative anaerobic which 
live best in the absence of air, but can live in its presence, as 
B. typhoid; and obligative anaerobic which can live only in the 
absence of air, as B. tetanus. Aerobic refers to bacteria which live 
in the presence of air. As with the anaerobic, there is a facultative 
form which grows best in the presence of air but can live in its 
absence, as B. anthracis ; and an obligative form which can grow only 
in its presence, as B. subtilis. 

Define the following terms: (a) saphrophytic, (b) pathogenic, (c) 

asepsis, (d) sterile, (e) culture, (f) pure culture. 

(a) Bacteria that feed on dead organic matter and usually 

non-pathogenic; (b) capable of producing disease; (c) free from 

sepsis-producing organisms; (d) absolutely free of all germs; 

(e) a growth of microorganisms in suitable fluids or other media; 

(f ) a growth consisting exclusively of one species of bacteria. 

Name five common culture-media. 

Bouillon, agar, blood-serum, potato, milk. 

Define antiseptic and disinfectant and give examples of each. 

An antiseptic is an agent which prevents the formation of pus. 
Examples: corrosive sublimate, phenol. 

A disinfectant is an agent which destroys bacteria. Examples : 
strong solutions of corrosive sublimate, formaldehyde, actual 
cautery. 

Name the pus-producing microorganisms. 

Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus, albus and citreous, strepto- 
coccus pyogenes, gonococcus and pneumococcus are the most com- 
mon pus-producing microorganisms, although the bacillus of tuber- 
culosis, typhoid, coli and glanders may form pus, as well as the 
actinomyces and certain yeast and moulds, e.g., aspergilli. 

What disease is produced by (a) Koch's bacillus, (b) Nicolaier's 
bacillus, (c) bacillus of Bang? 
(a) Tuberculosis; (b) tetanus; (c) infectious abortion. 
11 



162 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Name the channels through which the bacillus of tuberculosis may 
enter the animal's body. 
Alimentary tract, respiratory tract, genito-urinary tract, 
abraded skin and mucous membranes. 

What is an acid-fast organism? Name the organisms belonging to 
this group. 
An acid-fast organism is one that is not decolorized by dilute 
acids after being stained with the usual aniline dyes. 

B. tuberculosis, smegma bacillus, leprosy bacillus and the bacillus 
of bacterial dysentery of cattle (Johne's bacillus) belong to this 
group. 

Describe the bacillus of (a) tetanus, (b) anthrax, (c) tuberculosis. 

(a) A slender rod, from 4 to 5fjL long and generally shows a 
spore at one end which, being larger than the bacillus, gives it the 
appearance of a pin or drum-stick. It is anaerobic, stains readily 
with aniline dyes and produces the most poisonous toxin of any 
known bacteria. 

(b) A non-motile, rod-shaped organism, 5 to 20 fx long ; a uniform 
width of Ifx; square cut ends; grows in long filaments composed 
of a large number of the organisms joined end to end. It forms very 
resistant spores and grows best under aerobic conditions. 

(c) Straight or slightly curved rods, 1.5 to 3.5/x long and 
%/* wide, occurring singly or in bunches ; does not produce spores, 
is acid-fast and difficult to cultivate on culture media until adapted 
to such conditions. 

Describe the fungus of actinomycosis. 

This fungus belongs to the type of higher bacteria, known as 
cladothrix or streptothrix. It is club-shaped and occurs as minute, 
yellow granules in the lesions; varies from 1 to 10/x long; can be 
cultivated on artificial media and stains feebly with the aniline dyes. 
In some varieties, the clubs show long, thread-like filaments attached 
to them. 

Define (a) mallein, (b) tuberculin, 

(a) A liquid extract from cultures of the glanders bacillus used 
as a diagnostic agent for glanders. It is prepared by growing 
glanders bacilli in a flask of glycerinated bouillon for 6 or 8 weeks ; 
the growth is filtered off and the filtrate is concentrated by boiling ; 
a small amount of a preservative, such as phenol, is added. 

(b) Tuberculin is a glycerine extract obtained from cultures of 
the tubercle bacillus and is used as a diagnostic agent for tuber- 
culosis. It is prepared similar to mallein, above described. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 163 

What are agglutinins? 

Substances in the blood-serum which have the property of 
agglutinating or clumping bacteria. These substances are present 
in normal serum but are very abundant in the serum of animals 
immunized to, or suffering from certain diseases. This property is 
utilized as a diagnostic agent. 

If unexpectedly called upon to do so, how could one properly collect 
tissues in the country for bacteriologic examination? 
Procure a fruit- jar with a tight-fitting cover. Boil same for 
thirty minutes. Open the animal and, with a sterilized knife, cut out 
and carefully place in the jar, specimens desired to be examined; 
avoid contaminating with any other objects; seal quickly, using 
paraffin over the top. 

What is the opsonic index? How is it determined? 

The opsonic index is the measure of the power of the blood-serum 
of an infected individual to prepare bacteria for phagocytosis, com- 
pared with the serum of a healthy individual. 

It is determined by mixing a known quantity of bacterial sus- 
pension with equal quantities of blood serum and an emulsion of 
healthy leucocytes. After incubating the mixture long enough to 
permit the opsonins to act on the bacteria and phagocytosis to take 
place, slides are prepared and stained, and the average number of 
bacteria in a leucocyte determined. (One hundred or more leuco- 
cytes should be examined to obtain average.) If 100 leucocytes 
take up 400 bacteria when treated with healthy serum, and 100 
leucocytes take up only 300 of the same bacteria when treated with 
the patient's serum, that patient's opsonic index is (400:300 = 
1 : Z) X = 0.75. 

What is the cause of the following diseases: (a) surra, (b) Johne's 
disease, (c) hog cholera, (d) actinomycosis. 
(a) Trypanosoma Evansi; (b) bacillus paratuberculosis ; (c) 
filterable virus, associated with B. cholera suis; (d) ray fungus. 

What diseases are caused by the bacillus necrophorus ? 

The necrosis bacillus causes foot rot in sheep and cattle ; necro- 
bacillosis of the liver, lips, mouth, vagina, sheath, penis ; and various 
gangrenous processes. 

What is (a) an antitoxin, (b) a toxin, (c) a bactericidal serum, (d) 
bacteriolytic serum, (e) exotoxin, (f) endotoxin? 
(a) A substance in the serum which binds and neutralizes toxin ; 



164 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

(b) a poisonous product elaborated by microorganisms ; (e) a serum 
destructive to bacteria; (d) a serum containing a lysin destructive 
to a species of bacteria; (e) a toxin excreted by a microorganism, 
and which can be recovered by filtration from a culture without 
destruction of the producing agent; (f) a toxin elaborated by a 
microorganism within its substance, and which becomes free only 
after destruction of the producing agent. 

What do you understand by negative phase ? 

The temporary lowering of the opsonic index, following an 
injection of a bacillary vaccine. It is followed by the positive 
phase in which the opsonic index is raised and a relief from the 
general symptoms of the disease is observed. 

What is meant by the optimum, maximum and minimum of tempera- 
ture of a germ? 
All bacteria grow best at a certain temperature, about 38° C, 
called the optimum. Some will grow at a much lower and some at 
a much higher temperature. The lowest point at which the germ 
will grow is called the minimum, and the highest point, the maxi- 
mum temperature of the germ. 

What do you understand by Gram-positive and Gram-negative? 

This refers to Gram's differential method of staining bacteria. 
The specimen is first placed in aniline gentian violet, then rinsed 
in water and immersed in Gram's solution of iodine (iodine 1, potas- 
sium iodide 2, water 300), again rinsed in water and placed for a 
few minutes in strong alcohol, washed again and dipped in dilute 
eosin solution. The bacteria that are stained a deep-violet by this 
method are called Gram-positive; those that are decolorized and 
take on the counter-stain are Gram-negative. 

How do bacteria produce disease? 

By their irritating local action and by the production of toxins. 

Define immunity and give varieties. 

A state in which the body is resistant to disease. 1. Natural 
immunity, possessed by all the individuals of a class, by reason of 
age or racial peculiarity. Cattle are naturally immune to glanders. 
2. Acquired immunity, obtained by having overcome an attack of a 
pathogenic microorganism (active), or as a result of the injection 
of a serum from an animal which has acquired an active immunity 
against the organism in question (passive). 

What disease is caused by tinea tonsurans? 
Ringworm. 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE* 

General and Differential Diagnosis 

What is meant by (a) diagnosis, (b) prognosis, (c) termination? 

(a) Diagnosis is the recognition of a disease by its symptoms. 

(b) Prognosis is the art of foreseeing and predicting the course 
and outcome of a disease. 

(c) Termination refers to the end of a disease, it may be by cure 
(complete recovery), incomplete recovery or death. 

What is the difference between an infectious and a contagious dis- 
ease? Give examples of each. 
Some authorities use these terms synonymously. All contagious 
diseases are infectious, that is, due to infection, but all infectious 
diseases are not contagious, that is, spread by contact. Tetanus and 
black-leg are infectious diseases but are not communicable through 
contact (contagion), arising generally from wound infection; 
whereas, foot and mouth disease, anthrax and tuberculosis are infec- 
tious diseases which are spread by contact. 

Describe a hard pulse, a fast pulse, a compressible pulse, a dicrotic 
pulse and state conditions in which each occur. 

A hard pulse is one in which the arterial wall is firmly distended 
and does not yield readily to pressure. Seen in inflammation of 
serous membranes (peritonitis, pleurisy), tetanus and acute brain 
diseases. 

A fast pulse is an abnormal increase in the frequency of the 
pulse. It is seen physiologically after exercise, excitement, high 
atmospheric temperature ; pathologically in most all severe diseases. 

A compressible pulse is one which yields readily to moderate 
pressure and does not lift the finger palpating it; seen in diseases 
associated with cardiac weakness. 

A dicrotic pulse is one in which two expansions can be felt in 
one beat of the artery; seen in cases of lowered arterial tension, 
associated with weakened heart action, as in long-continued fevers 
and in all forms of anaemia. 
Give the symptoms of internal hemorrhage. 

Sudden paleness of the visible mucous membranes, syncope, 
rapid heart action, rapid weak pulse, convulsions and death. De- 
pending upon the location, special symptoms may be shown. Gas- 

* Unless otherwise stated all questions relate to the horse. 

165 



166 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

trie and intestinal hemorrhage may be shown by vomiting of blood 
and bloody faeces; pulmonary hemorrhage is shown by dyspnoea, 
coughing and bloody froth from the nostrils. Hgematuria is present 
in hemorrhage of the urinary tract. 

What is Cheyne-Stokes breathing? When seen? 

A type of breathing characterized by rhythmic variations in 
intensity, occurring in cycles. Each cycle consists of a gradual 
decrease in the intensity of the respiratory movements, followed by 
total cessation for a space of from five to forty seconds; this in 
turn is followed by a gradual increase of the respiratory movements 
until they reached a maximum and become dyspnoeic in character. 
This type of breathing is seen in severe cerebral diseases such as 
urgemic coma and cerebrospinal meningitis. 

Differentiate malignant CEdema from anthrax. 

Malignant oedema may be differentiated from anthrax by its 
appearance outside of anthrax districts; by absence of bacillus an- 
thracis from the blood; normal size of the spleen; crepitating 
swellings; presence of an extensive wound and the characteristic, 
causative microorganism. 

Differentiate heat stroke (thermic fever) from heat exhaustion. 

Heat stroke is manifested by weariness during work, profuse 
sweating, great rise of temperature, dyspnoea, rapid pulse, dilata- 
tion followed by contraction of the pupil, staggering, collapse and 
death. In heat exhaustion, there is no fever present, in fact the 
temperature may be subnormal; muscular weakness and collapse. 

Name the diagnostic tests for glanders. 

1. Animal inoculation (Strauss method). 

2. Subcutaneous mallein. 

3. Cutaneous mallein. 

4. Intradermal mallein. 

5. Ophthalmic mallein. 

6. Complement-fixation. 

7. Agglutination. 

8. Precipitin. 

9. Autogenous bacterin. 

10. Post-mortem. 

11. Clinical (physical examination). 

State the difference between the agglutination test and the precipitin 
test for glanders. 

The agglutination test is based upon the fact that blood-serum, 
which normally contains agglutinating substances, but in glanders 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 167 

a greater amount, will cause the clumping, or agglutinating of 
glanders bacilli in suspensions of potato or agar cultures, whereupon 
these clumps are precipitated to the bottom of the supernatant clear 
fluid. 

The precipitin test is based upon the fact that the serum from 
a glandered horse produces a flaky precipitate in the filtrate of 
glanders cultures, when mixed together. 

In a test for glanders, state the relative advantages of the mallein and 
agglutination tests. 
The mallein test can only be used on living animals. The agglu- 
tination test can be applied to dead animals. The former method 
is long and tedious and cannot be used when fever is present, 
whereas the latter is simple for the practitioner, most of the work 
being done in a laboratory ; presence of fever is no hindrance. Mal- 
lein is more accurate; agglutination does occur with the serum of 
healthy animals and the line of distinction is often close. The mal- 
lein test necessitates the confinement of the patient, whereas the 
agglutination test allows the horse to continue at work. 

Describe the course to be pursued in testing with mallein. 

Take three preliminary temperatures, at least four hours apart. 
With antiseptic precautions, inject the mallein subcutaneously. 
Eight hours later, make a temperature reading and thereafter every 
two hours until twenty hours after injection. A reaction consists 
of a gradual rise and fall of temperature of at least 2° F., and a 
local reaction shown by an oedematous, painful swelling at the seat 
of injection, lasting four or five days. Healthy horses are not 
affected except, perhaps, by a local swelling which disappears in 
twenty-four hours. 

The ophthalmic mallein test depends upon a purulent conjunc- 
tivitis following from 4 to 24 hours after the instillation of a few 
drops of a concentrated mallein solution into the conjunctival sac. 

The cutaneous mallein test depends upon a local reaction follow- 
ing an intradermal or endermic inoculation with mallein. 

Describe the complement fixation test for glanders. 

The phenomenon of haemolysis is the fundamental principle of 
this test. If the blood-serum of a rabbit is treated with the red 
blood-corpuscles of a sheep, antibodies {hemolytic amboceptors) 
will be formed. These antibodies have the power to dissolve sheep 
red blood-corpuscles in the presence of free complement. This 
process is called hemolysis and depends upon two substances; one 
of these, the complement, is present in the blood of every animal 



168 



VETERINARY STATE BOARD 



and can be destroyed by beating tbe serum to 56° C. for half an 
hour. (This is called inactivating the serum) ; the other substance, 
known as the immune tody, Jicemolytic amboceptor, or antibody. 
By inactivating the serum, the power of hemolysis is lost, because 
the complement is destroyed; but this power can be restored by 
adding fresh serum which always contains complement. Guinea-pig 
serum is very rich in complement and is used in the test. 

In horses affected with glanders, the infectious principle, the 
toxin, stimulates the production of antibodies. These antibodies, 
or bacterial amboceptors, are nature's fighters against the invading 
toxin. For use in this test, this toxin is obtained by making an ex- 
tract of an artificial growth of glanders bacilli, and is called antigen. 

If the serum of a glandered animal which, of course, contains 
antibodies, is inactivated (complement destroyed by heat) and 
brought in contact with the antigen in the presencQ^ of complement 
(supplied by adding fresh guinea-pig serum) , the complement will 
become firmly fixed by the combined antibody and antigen. This 
fixation of the complement is more thoroughly established when the 
mixture is placed in an incubator for one hour. If to this mixture, 
red blood-corpuscles of a sheep and rabbit serum, containing haemo- 
lytic amboceptors, are added, no haemolysis will occur because the 
complement that was added was previously fixed to the antigen by 
means of the glanders antibodies. 

The serum of a glanders-free horse does not contain antibodies, 
so if it is mixed with antigen and complement, the latter does not 
become fixed, but remains free; therefore, when the red blood- 
corpuscles and the rabbit serum, containing hemolytic amboceptors, 
are added to such a mixture, haemolysis occurs. 



Positive Reaction. 
Antigen -f- serum-containing antibody 
-f- complement -j- liaemolytic ambo- 
ceptor -f sheep red blood-corpnscles 
= no hsemolysis. 

The complement unites with the anti- 
gen, through the antibody, hence 
there is no complement to act 
through the haemolytic amboceptor 
on the sheep corpuscles. 



Negative Reaction. 
Antigen -f normal s e r u m + comple- 
m e n t + haemolytic amboceptor -{- 
sheep red blood-corpuscles = haemol- 
ysis. 

There is no antibody to unite the 
complement and antigen, hence the 
complement is free to act through 
the haemolytic amboceptor on the 
sheep red blood-corpuscles. 



This is not a practicable test for the regular practitioner because 
it requires special laboratory apparatus and very accurate technic. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 169 

How may strangles be differentiated from glanders? 

By purulent submaxillary lymphadenitis; by animal inocula- 
tion ; by any of the various glanders tests ; in glanders, typical ulcers 
are seen in the nasal mucous membranes, similar ulcers are seen 
in strangles but tend to heal rapidly; strangles occurs in young 
horses and prevails in sale stables. 

Make a differential diagnosis between acute nasal glanders and nasal 
gleet. 
Clinically, it may be difficult to differentiate, a considerable 
time for observation being necessary. Usually there are no ulcers 
or scars in nasal gleet, and the disease responds to treatment. 
Special diagnostic tests for glanders are best resorted to at first to 
avoid danger in handling. 

Name two diseases that are frequently mistaken for glanders. Name 
two laboratory methods frequently employed in diagnosing 
glanders. 
Strangles and nasal gleet (chronic rhinitis). Agglutination 
test and complement fixation test. 

Make a differential diagnosis of acute lymphangitis and farcy. 

Lymphangitis is a local affection ; farcy is a symptom of general- 
ized glanders. The former progresses very acutely with fever and 
sometimes formation of abscesses in the lymph-glands; the latter 
usually progresses slowly, without fever and with but slight par- 
ticipation of the glands. The abscesses of lymphangitis have smooth 
edges and heal rapidly by granulation, but those of glanders form 
crateriform, non-healing ulcers. Special diagnostic tests for 
glanders. 

Differentiate azoturia from spinal meningitis. 

Differentiate by the sudden onset, hard swollen gluteal muscles, 
ability to bear weight on the legs, although the fetlocks knuckle; 
history of idleness and full diet ; black, coffee-colored urine. 

Differentiate cryptogamic forage poisoning from lead poisoning. 

Forage poisoning develops slowly with paralyses, especially of 
the pharynx, little or no fever. Lead poisoning has a sudden onset 
(except in the chronic form) ; salivation, convulsions, colics, blue line 
around gums, coma and collapse. 

Differentiate osteoporosis from osteomalacia. 

Osteoporosis is a condition in which the compact bone prolifer- 
ates and becomes rarefied (porous), or cancellated. Osteomalacia 
is a morbid softening of bone. The former often occurs with the 



170 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

latter and predominates. In fact, the two conditions are so similar 
that, in view of the lack of information, it is hardly proper to classify 
them as independent affections. Plowever, osteomalacia occurs more 
frequently in cattle and clinically, in many ways, is not unlike 
osteoporosis which is more commonly observed in horses. 

Describe the course to be pursued in testing with tuberculin. 

Practically the same as the mallein test (subcutaneous), see 
page 167, except no local reaction occurs as in glanders. 

Give an account of the sources of fallacy in testing cattle for tuber- 
culosis and state clearly the precautions that might be taken 
to avoid them. 

Tuberculin may be of inferior quality. Cattle may have been 
tested recently or had tuberculin injected just previous to test, 
and therefore do not respond properly. Cattle do not react when 
in advanced stages of the disease. Cows, within two weeks of par- 
turition, may not react though affected with the disease. Stabling 
animals when accustomed to pasture may cause a rise in tempera- 
ture. Administration of antipyretics by unscrupulous owners 
may cause a mistaken interpretation of results. 

Precautions: Use freshly prepared reliable tuberculin; deter- 
mine, if possible, the date of last test; observe advanced cases by 
clinical examination and exclude them from test; defer testing 
pregnant cows near end of term and cows which have recently 
calved; stable animals a few days before making test. 

Differentiate contagious pleuropneumonia from influenza. 

Contagious pleuropneumonia is characterized by the typical 
pleurisy and pneumonia which are transmitted with the same pre- 
dominating symptoms to other animals. The legs do not swell as 
in influenza; it is more severe and fatal; influenza may cause a 
croupous pneumonia; is milder in attack; digestive disorders are 
common ; legs swell ; pink-eye is seen. 

Give the distinctive symptoms of spasmodic colic and enteritis. 

Spasmodic colic shows intervals of ease, no fever, and violent 
movements when spasms occur ; early recovery. Enteritis is accom- 
panied by fever, constant uneasiness, careful decubitus and rising ; 
gradually grows worse. 

What is the difference between septicaemia and pyaemia? Treatment 
for each. 
Septicaemia is a morbid condition due to the presence of non- 
specific pathogenic bacteria and their associated poisons (toxins and 
tox-albumins) in the blood. It is accompanied by chills, fever, 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 171 

sweating and great prostration. Pyaemia is a blood-poisoning by 
pyogenic microorganisms and is shown by fever, chills, icterus and 
abscess formation in various parts of the body. 

Treatment: Is virtually hopeless. Remove necrotic tissue from 
wounds ; antiseptic treatment ; quinine sulphate in large doses, inter- 
nally ; stimulants to sustain heart action. 

Give the differential symptoms of acute pharyngitis and acute laryn- 
gitis. 
Pharyngitis: difficulty in swallowing; no cough. 
Laryngitis : no difficulty in swallowing ; cough present. 
Often occur together. 

How can acute nephritis be distinguished from lumbago and lumbar 
rheumatism ? 
By urinary examination and finding casts, indicative of nephritis. 
By tenderness of the kidneys in nephritis, as shown by palpation 
per rectum. 

What do you understand by diagnostic inoculation? 

Diagnostic inoculations consist of the introduction of certain 
substances into the bodies of animals for the purpose of determining 
either the character of the substance or the condition of the animal 's 
health. Hence the substance injected is either a material of known 
composition (tuberculin, mallein), or tissue from an animal affected 
with an infectious disease, the nature of which is to be determined. 

Name three diseases in which you would expect to find a subnormal 
temperature. 
Parturient paresis, anaemia and chronic gastro-intestinal catarrh 
in the dog. 

Discuss auscultation and palpation. 

Auscultation is the act of listening for sounds within the body, 
especially in determining the condition of the heart, lungs, pleura 
and abdominal organs. 

Palpation is the act of examining an organ by feeling with the 
hands or finger tips. 

How is a positive diagnosis of rabies made? 

By miscroscopic examination of the brain and finding Negri 
bodies; also by inoculating experimental animals with the brain 
tissue of the suspected animal. More recently, the complement- 
fixation test has been used and is said to be satisfactory in the 
diagnosis of rabies. 



172 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Give mode of examining a horse for soundness and a certificate for 
same. 
Examine the horse in the stable, outside and at work. Record a 
description of the animal for the purpose of identification. Exam- 
ine thoroughly every accessible part or organ by inspection, palpa- 
tion and auscultation. As very few horses are absolutely sound, 
most examiners employ the phrase ' ' serviceably sound," meaning 
that the defects present will not interfere with the animal perform- 
ing the required duty. 

EXAMINATION FOR SOUNDNESS 

Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 5, 1914. 

This certifies, that I have this day examined, at the request of 
Mr. John Doe, a bay gelding, 15.2 hands high, 9 years old, white 
star and blaze patch between nostrils, clipped foretop, full mane 
and tail, all black points, saddle and collar marks, slit in the tip of 
left ear. 

Notes : ringbone on near fore, chronic arthritis deformans of the 
left hock. 

From above notes, to the best of my judgment and belief, said 
animal is not sound. 

Richard Roe, D.Y.M. 

Note. — The above examination does not include such obscure 
diseases as staggers (epilepsy and immobility), recurrent ophthal- 
mia, cribbing without evidence on teeth, etc. 

Acute General Infectious Diseases 

What are the essential causes of hog cholera and swine plague? 

According to the results of latest investigators, hog cholera is 
caused by an ultramicroscopic, filtrable virus. Besides the virus, 
two species of bacteria, the bacillus suipestifer and the bacillus 
suisepticus, play an important part in the etiology of hog cholera. 
The secondary affections of the intestines, lymph-glands and lungs 
are usually produced by the pathogenic action of these bacteria. 

Swine plague is caused by the bacillus suisepticus. 

Give the diagnostic symptoms of hog cholera and swine plague. 

Hog cholera: Acute form, fever, variable appetite, vomiting, 
conjunctivitis, constipation followed by diarrhoea which may be 
bloody ; reddening of skin on nose, ears, abdomen and on the inside 
of the thighs; die after a few hours or a few days' sickness; simul- 
taneous sickness of several members of the herd; may or may not 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 173 

be complicated with the respiratory affection of swine plague. 
Chronic form, after 1-3 weeks, acute symptoms diminish, appetite 
improves, diarrhoea ceases; recovery; others, the appetite remains 
irregular, occasional diarrhoea, anaemia, cachexia, exhaustion and 
death after several months. 

Swine plague: Often appears as a complication of hog cholera. 
Less commonly as a primary affection. Peracute form : high fever, 
weakness, anorexia, petechia, symptoms of hemorrhagic septicaemia ; 
die in 12 to 24 hours. Acute form: fever 104°-106° F., nasal dis- 
charge, paroxysmal cough, dyspnoea, pneumonia, tenderness of 
thorax (pleurisy), cyanotic membranes, rapid, throbbing pulse; 
constipation followed by diarrhoea, anorexia, emaciation, petechise, 
die in 1 to 2 weeks ; recovery rare. Chronic form follows subsidence 
of acute symptoms; coughing and difficult respiration persist; 
cachexia ; polyarthritis ; die in 3 to 6 weeks. 

^^ What prophylactic measures and means of extinction should be em- 
ployed in an outbreak of hog cholera or swine plague? 

Hog cholera: Separate the well from the affected and divide 
into small groups; should any of these show symptoms, repeat the 
procedure. Destroy affected and thoroughly disinfect premises; 
isolate newly-purchased animals for three weeks before introducing 
them into herd ; quarantine ; immunize and treat with serum. 

Swine plague : Separate the well from the affected ; destroy car- 
casses, thoroughly disinfect, quarantine and immunize with hog 
cholera serum. (Hog cholera and swine plague often exist in the 
same animal.) 

State causes of horse-pox and cowpox. 

An ultramicroscopic, filtrable virus, called 'Wirus of variola.'' 

N , Give the general symptoms, the sequelae and the best methods of treat- 
ment, restriction and extinction of horse- and cowpox. 
Horse-pox is very rare and its occurrence is doubted by many 
good authorities. A vesiculopustular exanthema in the flexor re- 
gion of the pastern of young animals is considered as horse-pox. 
This is usually accompanied by a slight elevation of temperature. 
Treatment consists of antiseptic dressing of affected part. 

Cowpox occurs sporadically on the teats and around their base ; 
5 to 20 nodules, size of a pea, develop into vesicles, pustules and 
rupture, leaving an ulcer, scab and scar, respectively. Duration, 
1 to 2 weeks ; slight general disturbance, fever, diminished appetite, 
irregular rumination, changes in the milk not constant. Scrotum 
affected in the male. Sequelae : mastitis, wound infection. 



174 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Treatment: Avoid irritating wound; use milk catheter; keep 
udder clean and dry; isolate and vaccinate; Epsom salts internally; 
sodium hyposulphite, 1 per cent, solution, or oxide of zinc oint- 
ment externally. 

Give the accessory causes of tetanus. 

Essential cause is the bacillus tetani. Accessory causes : traumas, 
especially punctured wounds, castration, amputation of the tail, 
pricks in shoeing, parturition, unhealed navel, etc. 

What genera are most subject to tetanus? Why? 

Solipeds, because they are more susceptible to the action of the 
virus and more subject to traumatism. 

Give the diagnostic symptoms, prevention and treatment of tetanus. 

Symptoms: generalized tonic spasms, "saw-horse" attitude, 
head and tail extended, ears rigid, eyes sunken and fixed, protrusion 
of the membrana nictitans, nostrils dilated, hyperaesthesia, difficult 
swallowing, temperature normal or slightly elevated, constipation. 

Prevention: Avoid traumatism, especially nail wounds of the 
feet. Treat all wounds antiseptically. Tetanus antitoxin, if given 
before symptoms appear, in dose of 750 units, will prevent the 
disease. 

Treatment: Nothing specific. Disinfect the seat of infection; 
provide quiet quarters; feed easily masticated, laxative diet; keep 
fresh water before patient ; empty rectum and bladder at frequent 
intervals with the hand; antispasmodics may help in controlling 
spasms; phenol, magnesium sulphate, bromides, hydrocyanic acid, 
lobelia, tetanus antitoxin, etc., are of disputed therapeutic value. 

State the cause of malignant oedema. Name the microbe and give 
symptoms and course. 

Cause: wound infection by bacillus oedematis maligni. 

Symptoms : Suddenly appearing and rapidly spreading swelling 
which is cedematous and crepitates on palpation ; hot and tender at 
first but later becomes insensitive; if incised, a reddish-yellow or 
colorless serous fluid containing air-bubbles is discharged ; dyspnoea, 
cyanotic membranes, colicky pains, tympanites, high temperature; 
death may occur in a few hours or, at the longest, three days after 
appearance of the first symptoms. Recovery exceptional. 

Describe the symptoms of hemorrhagic septicaemia in cattle. 

Sudden checking in milk secretion, difficult swallowing, anorexia, 
general dulness, high temperature, diarrhoeal discharge dark in color 
or may be bloody; bloody urine and bloody serous discharge from 
nostrils ; painful cedematous swellings about the legs, shoulders and 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 175 

under the throat ; convulsions ; short duration, often found dead in 
field. 

Describe the symptoms and course of anthrax in cattle. 

Peracute cases: May die suddenly with no previous symptoms 
observed; high fever, bloody discharge from mouth, nostrils and 
anus, convulsions and death in a few hours. 

Acute cases: High fever, restlessness followed later by depres- 
sion and convulsions; small rapid pulse, dyspncea from cedema of 
the glottis ; tympany, diarrhoea, faeces mixed with blood, or clots of 
blood may be passed ; hot, doughy swellings over the surface of the 
body. Cutaneous^ form, which is characterized by carbuncles 
{malignant pustule), rare. Death in 12 to 48 hours. 

Subacute cases: Occur in latter end of an epidemic; show rise 
of temperature and constitutional disturbance; recover in 2 to 7 
days. 

Give the symptoms, treatment and general termination of epizootic 
cellulitis. 

A form of influenza characterized by fever, depression and in- 
flammatory oedema of the cutis and subcutis over the dependent por- 
tions of the body, especially the eyelids, nostrils, sheath, ventral 
surface of the abdomen and the limbs. Appetite may or may not 
be impaired ; pulse rapid and strong ; disinclination to move ; con- 
stipation. 

Treatment: Sodium sulphate may be given in bran mashes 
or in drench. Potassium nitrate in the drinking water. Usually 
recover uneventfully. 

Describe the symptoms of infectious pneumonia (contagious pleuro- 
pneumonia) other than the elevation of temperature, in- 
creased pulse-rate and respiration. 
Icterus, anorexia, dulness, yellow nasal discharge, cough, crepi- 
tation, pleuritic friction at first, later a long horizontal line of dul- 
ness on percussion due to exudate; pharyngitis which may be fol- 
lowed by inhalation bronchitis and gangrenous pneumonia ; pericar- 
ditis, endocarditis and myocarditis; dropsical swellings of the legs 
and elsewhere. The symptom of dulness may be followed by stupor, 
rolling of eyes, vertigo or paresis of the hind limbs. 

Give course, termination and treatment of contagious pleuropneumonia. 

See answer to preceding question. Moderate cases in strong, 

well-nourished horses begin to improve at the end of one week and 

recover in 2 to 3 weeks, convalescence complete in one month. 

Severe cases almost invariably succumb in a few days; gangrene 



176 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

of the lungs, toxaemia, tendinitis and myocarditis are unfavorable 
complications. 

Treatment : Hygienic and dietetic measures are most important. 
In very high fever, give antipyretics ; likewise, symptomatic treat- 
ment in other alarming conditions such as intestinal antiseptics in 
diarrhoea, heart tonics in myocarditis, etc. Nuclein, tallianin, col- 
loidal silver, bacterial endotoxins and serum therapy are of disputed 
therapeutic value. More recently, salvarsan and neosalvarsan have 
been advocated as specifics and *'sure cures" and the outlook is 
most encouraging. 

Give the symptoms of foot and mouth disease (aphthae epizooticas). 

Fever, redness and tenderness of the buccal mucous membranes 
and teats, grinding of teeth, salivation, smacking of tongue, tender 
feet, shaking of feet backward; blisters on lips, buccal mucous 
membranes, teats and between digits; these blisters may rupture 
and leave a raw, inflamed, underlying tissue; separation of horn 
from coronary band sometimes occurs; diarrhoea in sucklings due 
to gastro-intestinal catarrh. Prognosis favorable in adult cattle. 
Recovery in 2 weeks. 

Give the symptoms and course of rabies in dogs. 

Two forms, furious and dumb. Furious form: More affec- 
tionate, dulness alternating with excitement ; peculiar howl, due to 
paralysis of the throat; depraved appetite, hallucinations, eyes 
red and fixed; wanders away from home, biting dogs, persons and 
all objects in its path; dribbling of saliva and finally paralysis of 
the lower jaw, pharynx and posterior limbs, followed by death. 
Course, 2 to 5 days. Dumb form : Usually follows the furious form 
and represents the paralytic stage. If present from the first, the 
animal is dull, apathetic, shows little or no inclination to bite; no 
howling, seeks seclusion and quiet. Paralysis extends and death 
follows. 

Describe the successive symptoms of a very severe case of distemper 
in the dog eventually ending in death. 
Fever, vomiting, coughing, nasal discharge which is first serous 
but later mucopurulent; catarrhal conjunctivitis, keratitis, ulcers 
on the cornea; exanthema; catarrhal bronchitis and pneumonia, 
chorea, emaciation and death. May have the nervous form, mani- 
fested by chorea, from the first. 

Give the causes and symptoms of Texas fever. 

Cause : A microorganism belonging to the protozoa, called piro- 
plasma bigeminum, also called Babesia bigeminum bovis. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 177 

Symptoms : Acute form, high fever, rapid pulse and respiration, 
anorexia, dulness, constipation, icterus, prostration, weakness, de- 
lirium, hemoglobinuria, blood thin and pale, diarrhoea, emaciation. 
Course, 1 to 7 days. Mild form : Symptoms similar to those in the 
acute form, except they are less severe and are prolonged for a 
greater length of time. 

What is influenza? Give causes and symptoms. 

Influenza is an acute, infectious disease of the horse (rarely the 
ass and mule), occurring enzootically and epizootically, and is char- 
acterized by a rise of temperature and a catarrhal condition of the 
mucous membranes of the respiratory and digestive tracts. 

Cause : Seems to be a specific infection, the nature of which is, 
as yet, undetermined. A number of organisms have been found and 
described as the specific one, viz., coccobacillus of Lignieres, bacilli, 
streptococci, etc. A filtrable virus seems to have been proven by 
recent experimenters who consider the streptococci, bacilli, etc., as 
secondary invaders. 

Symptoms: Various manifestations and forms; viz., catarrhal 
form, pink eye, abdominal form, infectious cellulitis and any number 
of combinations of the above. In general, we observe: sudden 
attack, anorexia, extreme prostration and weakness, high tempera- 
ture, swelling and watering of the eyes, icterus, cough, accelerated 
pulse, mucopurulent nasal discharge, pharyngitis, bronchitis, 
pneumonia, pleurisy, digestive disorders, and an cedematous swell- 
ing of the extremities, sheath, etc. Mild cases may show only a 
high fever and prostration lasting a few days. There is a great 
variety of internal forms. 

Give some of the modern forms of treatment of influenza. 

Besides the usual symptomatic treatment followed in pneumonia, 
pleurisy and enteritis from other causes, nuclein, tallianine, anti- 
streptococcus serum, palyvalent bacterins, mixed infection phyla- 
cogens and proprietary vaccines are used. 

Give causes and symptoms of purpura hemorrhagica. 

Cause: Not definitely known; follows debilitating diseases as a 
secondary affection ; probably toxins, especially those causing vaso- 
dilatation. 

Symptoms: Fever; nasal petechiae; characteristic, extensive, 
abruptly-ending swellings of the skin and subcutis of the abdomen, 
sheath and extremities; oozing of serum from the skin; dyspnoea 
and suffocation may follow from swelling of the nostrils and 
pharynx ; locomotion is painful ; appetite is usually good in the 
mild and often in the severe cases. 
12 



178 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

What is the prognosis and treatment of purpura hemorrhagica? 

Prognosis: Depends upon the severity of the attack and the 
complications. Average mortality 50 per cent. 

Treatment: Hygienic attention is very important; potassium 
chlorate as a diuretic; give vasomotor stimulants as potassium 
dichromate, quinine sulphate, strychnine sulphate and ergot ; inter- 
nal antiseptics such as sodium salicylate, salol, calomel, turpentine ; 
occasional small doses of linseed oil for its laxative effect, hut do 
not give strong or drastic purgatives; surgical measures such as 
tracheotomy may he necessary. 

Define specific infectious disease. Name five of these diseases. 

A specific infectious disease is one that is caused by the multi- 
plication of a single species of microorganism within the animal 
body. This particular organism, and it only, can produce the 
disease, e.g., anthrax, Texas fever, tetanus, glanders, tuberculosis. 

State the period of incubation of a case of street rabies in the dog. 

Varies from two weeks to three months. There are cases re- 
corded with an incubation period of two years (?). Average, 22 
days. 

Give the causes and treatment of an epizootic of scours in calves (white 
scours). 

Accessory causes: Unclean surroundings; open umbilicus; and 
hereditary debility. Specific cause : umbilical and intestinal infec- 
tion with B. coli communis. 

Treatment : As a prophylactic measure, disinfect stables and the 
external genitals of the mother before parturition; provide clean 
surroundings for parturient animals. Disinfect the umbilical re- 
gion; sterilize the milk, feeding utensils, or udder before feeding; 
clear the intestinal tract of irritating matters with castor oil one 
ounce, or calomel 2 to 5 grains, and follow with subnitrate of bis- 
muth 30 grains ; one teaspoonful of a 1 to 4000 solution of formalin, 
to each pint of milk, is useful to check diarrhoea in artificially fed 
calves, but it should be preceded by castor oil. 

Give the symptoms of rhino-adenitis. Mention the complications that 
sometimes occur in rhino-adenitis. 
Rhino-adenitis or strangles is a disease of young horses, mani- 
fested by dulness, anorexia, mucopurulent nasal discharge, purulent 
inflammation of the submaxillary lymph-glands which leads to rup- 
ture and healing; fever; increased pulse. Complications: larjoi- 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 179 

gitis, pharyngitis, bronchopneumonia, pleurisy, metastatis abscess 
formation in the lungs, liver, kidneys, spleen, pancreas and other 
parts. 

Chronic Infectious Diseases 

What genus of animals is subject to Johne's disease? State the essen- 
tial cause. 
Bovine. Caused by the bacillus of Johne's disease, an acid-fast 
microorganism which resembles very much the tubercle bacillus. 

What are the symptoms of Johne's disease? 

Gradual emaciation and anaemia unattended by fever or pain; 
a persistent, thin, watery diarrhoea, containing gas bubbles; appe- 
tite variable; diminished milk secretion; fatal termination. This 
disease is also known as ** enteritis chronica paratuberculosa" and 
*' chronic bacterial dysentery." 

State the prevention and treatment of Johne's disease. 

Isolation and destruction of affected animals; thorough disin- 
fection of premises ; raise offspring on new or uninfected pastures. 
No satisfactory treatment is known. 

Describe a case of epizootic lymphangitis, giving the history, symp- 
toms and prognosis. 

(This disease is unknown in this country ; the cases so diagnosed 
are probably ' ' sporotrichosis, ' ' which is caused by a sporothrix and 
presents similar symptoms.) 

History: Wound on the leg; unthrifty for past one or two 
months ; development of multiple, nodular swellings on the wounded 
leg; bursting of nodules and a discharge of thick, yellowish, oily 
pus ; nodules vary in size from a pea to a hen 's egg ; scar formation ; 
disease gradually extended up the leg, along the lymphatic vessels 
to the inguinal lymph-gands. 

Symptoms: Buds, ulcers or sores, characterized by exuberant 
granulations, fungoid appearance, indurated base and well-defined 
edges, discharging yellowish, oily pus ; nodules of various sizes ; in- 
duration of inguinal lymph-glands and swelling of the lymphatics ; 
normal temperature and good appetite. 

Prognosis: Usually recover with a resultant pachydermatitis 
of the affected leg. Mortality, 7 to 10 per cent. 

What is the treatment for epizootic l5mriphangitis ? 

Antiseptics ; open abscesses ; curette ; cauterize. Give potassium 
iodide internally. 



180 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Give the symptoms and treatment of actinomycosis in the cow. 

Symptoms: Deformity of the head or other parts affected by 
the neoplasms; hard, dense and sometimes suppurating tumors de- 
velop on the lips, tongue, maxillary bone, pharynx, skin, lymph- 
glands, lungs and occasionally in other organs. The symptoms, 
therefore, are various. Difficulty in prehension and mastication of 
food ; teeth loosen ; profuse salivation ; difficulty in swallowing and 
breathing; in a pulmonary affection, the symptoms resemble those 
of tuberculosis of the lungs. The disease progresses slowly ; a course 
of several years in mild cases; die from inanition due to inability 
to eat. 

Treatment: Surgical removal of tumors; cauterize the wound 
formed and apply tincture of iodine freely. Internally, give potas- 
sium iodide in repeated doses until signs of iodism appear, then 
discontinue for a time and repeat until a cure is effected. 

Give the cause, course and symptoms of glanders. 

Cause : Bacterium mallei, also called bacillus mallei. 

Course : Acute form, a few weeks ; the chronic form, one or more 
years. 

Symptoms : Variously manifested as nasal, pulmonary and cuta- 
neous (farcy) forms. Acute form starts with a chill, fever, muco- 
purulent nasal discharge which is sometimes mixed with blood ; one 
or both nostrils swollen, mucous membrane of a dark-red or violet 
color ; and contains numerous nodules which after a few days become 
eroded, leaving ulcers; submaxillary lymph-glands enlarged, hard 
and show little heat or tenderness; cutaneous form (farcy) may or 
may not be present; this form is characterized by swellings or 
nodules (farcy buds or farcy buttons) along the superficial lym- 
phatics, usually of a hind limb. The throat and lungs may become 
involved, as shown by a violent cough and dyspnoea. The acute 
form runs a rapid course to a fatal termination. 

Chronic form: Develops insidiously with nasal lesions, ulcers 
or star-shaped cicatrices, a sticky, blood-streaked nasal discharge; 
slate-colored mucous membrane; submaxillary lymph-glands hard, 
indurated and adherent to the adjacent structures. Appetite vari- 
able, gradual loss of flesh; intermittent, slight fever; oedematous 
swellings ; cough due to involvement of the lungs ; farcy buds may 
be present. 

What animals suffer from actinobacillosis ? Give diagnosis and treat- 
ment. 
Cattle and sheep. 
Diagnosis depends upon the finding of the bacillus which 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 181 

arranges itself in the tissues similar to the ray fungus of actino- 
mycosis. The four cases that were observed in Canada, in 1904, 
are the only ones ever reported in America. It is a very rare dis- 
ease; symptoms and treatment are the same as in actinomycosis. 

Describe the symptoms and course of tuberculosis in cattle. 

The symptoms vary according to the course of the disease. 
There are two forms, acute or miliary, and chronic. The latter is 
by far the more common. Acute form : Rapid loss of flesh, anorexia, 
cough, weakness, dyspnoea, slight fever, increased pulse, enlarged 
lymph-glands; very rapid course terminating in death in a few 
months. 

Chronic form : Symptoms vary according to location and extent 
of lesions. Many badly affected cases show no prominent symptoms. 
In general we observe: emaciation (tubercular cachexia), although 
the appetite remains good; staring coat; cough, especially if the 
lungs are involved. The palpable lymph-glands are painless, hard 
and enlarged. Enlarged mediastinal lymph-glands may press on 
the oesophagus and bronchi, thereby producing tympany and 
dyspnoea. Indigestion, shown by diarrhoea and constipation, fol- 
lows tuberculosis of the stomach and intestines. Enlargement and 
hardening of the udder, and changes in the milk are observed in 
advanced cases of udder affection. Nervous derangement indicates 
involvement of the brain and spinal cord. In tuberculosis of the 
bones and joints, the parts are enlarged and lameness is shown. 

What is dourine? 

Dourine is a chronic, contagious affection of breeding horses, 
transmitted by copulation, and is characterized first by local lesions 
on the external genitals, such as swellings, ulcers and scars, which 
is followed later by an affection of the nervous system, as shown 
by hyperaesthesia and paralysis. 

Give the cause and symptoms of dourine. 

Trypanosoma equiperdum, transmitted by contagion and almost 
exclusively by the act of coition. 

Symptoms : In the stallion, from one week to two months after 
infection a cold painless swelling develops on the glans penis, 
sheath, scrotum and abdomen; an urethral discharge, vesicles and 
ulcers may occur, although not constant; paraphymosis, semi-erec- 
tions, slight fever, strangury, paresis of hind limbs, emaciation, 
weakness, dementia, decubitus and skin eruption are some of the 
various symptoms presented. Course: 2 to 3 months to as many 
years, terminating usually by death. In mares: vulvar swelling, 



182 YETERINARY STATE BOARD 

leueorrhoea, eruptions on the mucosa of the vagina, erections of the 
clitoris, straining, inguinal swellings, sterility or abortion, lameness, 
trembling, angemia and emaciation, ending the same as in the stallion. 

What is the treatment for dourine? 

Local antiseptics; arsenical preparations internally. '^Sal- 
varsan^' is being strongly advocated. Prevention: isolate, prevent 
copulation, castrate and use sanitary police measures. 

What is infectious abortion ? 

Infectious abortion is the premature expulsion of the foetus, seen 
in cows, less commonly in mares, due to an infectious catarrh of 
the uterus transmitted by copulation or contagion. Infectious abor- 
tion of cows is due to the bacillus of Bang. Etiology is not fully 
determined in the mare. 

Granular venereal disease, which is quite prevalent, is frequently 
associated with abortion in cows. 

CName some of the more recent methods of diagnosing infectious abor- 
tion. 
Agglutination test, complement fixation test and the allergic test 
with *'abortin." The allergic test is not reliable at present. 

Diseases of the Blood and Blood-forming Organs 

What is " swamp fever " or infectious anemia? 

Infectious anaemia is a specific infectious disease of the horse 
which is manifested sometimes as an acute, at other times as a 
chronic, septicaemia, and causes a destruction of great numbers of 
red blood-corpuscles. It is caused by an ultramicroscopic micro- 
organism. 

Define anaemia, leukaemia and haemophilia. 

Anemia is a condition in which the blood is deficient either in 
quantity (oligemia) or in quality (oligocyth^emia). 

Leukaemia is a fatal disease in which there is a marked increase 
in the number of leucocytes in the blood, together with an enlarge- 
ment and proliferation of the lymphoid tissue of the spleen, 
lymphatic glands and bone-marrow. 

Haemophilia is a condition marked by a strong and abnormal 
tendency to bleeding, or hemorrhage, and is usually hereditary. 

State the causes of anaemia and give treatment. 

Causes: Inanition, unsanitary surroundings, overwork, poisons, 
lack of exercise, hemorrhage, persistent diarrhoea, long-lasting sup- 
puration, copious transudation, chronic diseases, parasites, infec- 
tion, etc. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 183 

Treatment : Remove cause ; correct diet ; give tonics such as iron 
sulphate or reduced iron, arsenic, etc.; transfusion of blood or 
infusion of normal saline solution. 

Where is the filaria immitis found? What condition does it produce? 

The embryos of this parasite are found in the circulating blood 
and the mature worms in the right heart of dogs. Conditions pro- 
duced are angemia, emaciation, increased appetite, dropsical swell- 
ings due to emboli, heart disturbances, etc. It runs a course of 
several years. 

Discuss briefly the etiology and prevention of haemoglobinuria. 

Haemoglobinuria (azoturia) occurs almost invariably in well- 
conditioned, plethoric horses, accustomed to regular work, after 
a day of idleness without reduction in the amount of rations. It 
is rarely seen in poorly nourished horses. Cold is thought to be an 
etiological factor as more cases are seen in winter than in summer. 
It is probably an auto-intoxication, the exact nature of which is 
undetermined. 

Prevention: Give regular exercise and reduce rations when 
idle. 

Give the symptoms and treatment of azoturia. 

r^ Symptoms: Soon after leaving the stable in apparently perfect 
* condition, the patient sweats, knuckles over on one or both hind, 
rarely in the fore, fetlocks, falls down and cannot arise except to 
stand in the knuckled attitude ; cerebral excitement may or may not 
be present ; the muscles of the gluteal region are hard and swollen ; 
urine is coffee-colored or black ; pulse full and accelerated, tempera- 
ture normal or slightly elevated. 

Treatment: Nothing specific. Quick-acting cathartics such as 
arecoline and Epsom salts; hot blankets over the loins may help; 
evacuate the bladder regularly; plenty of bedding should be pro- 
vided and the patient should be turned over every 4 to 6 hours. 
Bromides or chloral hydrate may be given per os, or cannabis 
indica, intravenously if the patient is restless. Slings are used by 
some but should not be used unless the patient can stand weU, in 
which case they are needless. 

Diseases of Metabolism 

Give the S5niiptoms, course and termination of osteoporosis. 

Inappetency, lifelessness, stiffness, shifting lameness, *'tied-in'' 
gait, stumbling, distortion of the bones of the face and lower jaw, 



184 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

polyarthritis, **tucked-up" abdomen, pleuritic ridge, emaciation, 
fractures, tearing away of ligamentous and tendinous attachments, 
etc., are among the prominent sjrmptoms of the disease. 

Course: Chronic, running several months or years, ending in 
death. Improvement may follow under proper handling if taken 
early, but relapses are common. 

What is the treatment for osteoporosis? 

Change of feed and environment. Calcium phosphate, in two- 
drachm doses three times daily, may be useful. Best to turn the 
horse out in pasture and make him ''rough it" for a year. 

Give cause, symptoms and treatment for rachitis. 

Causes: Hereditary, lack of lime salts in the food, unhygienic 
conditions. 

Symptoms : Unthrifty appearance, easily fatigued, recumbency, 
stiffness ; tender, swollen joints ; enlarged epiphyses, long bones bent ; 
brittleness of bones and loosening of teeth ; diarrhoea. 

Treatment: Principally hygienic; provide fresh air and sun- 
shine ; feed nutritious rations, rich in earthy salts, phosphates, bone 
dust, lime water, dilute hydrochloric acid, etc. 

Name the different forms of diabetes and give the treatment for each. 

Diabetes mellitus is characterized by the passing of a large 
amount of urine, containing an excessive amount of sugar. 

Diabetes insipidus is a chronic disease marked by great thirst 
and the passage of a large amount of urine but no excess of sugar. 

Diabetes mellitus is practically incurable; treat by limiting the 
amount of carbohydrates and feed more fats and proteids. Car- 
nivora may be fed fat meat, eggs, buttermilk. Opium and Carlsbad 
salts are said to be helpful. 

Diabetes insipidus is unsatisfactory to treat. It is usually due 
to chronic interstitial nephritis. Give vasoconstrictors, as ergot, 
valerian, etc. 

Diseases of the Urinary Organs 

Define pyelitis. How diagnosed and treated? 

Inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney. Diagnosed by micro- 
scopical examination of the urine and finding epithelial cells from 
the pelvis, blood-cells and pus. Usual symptoms of nephritis. 

Treatment : Abundance of pure water, sodium bicarbonate, urin- 
ary antiseptics, hot fomentations over loins. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 185 

State the more common causes of urinary cystitis. Give diagnosis and 
treatment. 

Causes: Diuretics, retention of urine, infection, calculi, para- 
sites, unclean catheter, adjacent inflammation. 

Diagnosis: Cloudy urine, containing shreds of mucous mem- 
branes, pus cells, blood and triple phosphates and of an alkaline 
reaction ; painful urination ; bladder- walls tender and thickened. 

Treatment: Disinfect bladder by irrigating with a 3 per cent, 
solution of boric acid and methylene blue internally. Give an abun- 
dance of pure water. Surgically remove calculi. 

Give the symptoms and treatment of uraemic poisoning in the dog. 

Occurs usually in connection with acute or chronic nephritis; 
dulness, chill, high fever, vomiting, convulsions, paralysis, Cheyne- 
Stokes breathing, coma and death. Uriniferous odor to the skin. 
Treatment: Venesection followed by infusion of normal saline 
solution. Withdraw urine and produce sweating with pilocarpus. 
Move bowels ; control convulsions with bromides. 

Give the common causes and the treatment for acute nephritis. 

Occurs most commonly as a secondary disease. May be caused by 
cold, drugs, such as arsenic, phosphorus, etc., irritant diuretics, 
toxins from specific fevers, infection, suppression of the urine, 
calculi, etc. 

Treatment: Relieve the kidneys as much as possible by giving 
diaphoretics and purges. Give urinary antiseptics as methylene 
blue and quiet pain with bromides or chloral hydrate. 

What are the causes of polyuria? How treated? 

Chronic interstitial nephritis, tumors of the brain, nervous dis- 
orders, mouldy feeds, diuretic drugs, cold, habitual constipation, 
suppression of perspiration. 

Treatment : Remove cause, change food, open bowels ; drugs are 
useless in most cases. 

What are the different steps in the examination of the urine? 

A. Macroscopical : Determine quantity, color, transparency, 
consistency, odor and specific gravity. 

B. Chemical: Reaction, albumin, indican, bile pigments and 
sugar. 

C. JMicroscopical : Centrifuge unfiltered urine and examine sedi- 
ment under the microscope for casts, epithelial cells, blood-cells, 
pus-cells and unorganized sediments (uric acid crystals, etc.). 



186 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

In what conditions do we find albuminuria? 

Nephritis, organic heart disease, emphysema, fevers, pneumonia, 
diabetes, anaemia, leukaemia, hydraemia, haematuria, haemoglobinuria, 
pregnancy. Often occurs in small amounts in healthy individuals. 

Give causes and treatment for haematuria. 

Nephritis, injuries to the kidneys, irritant plants with diuretic 
principle, certain drugs, wounds and inflammation of the bladder, 
calculae, urethritis and infectious diseases as anthrax and Texas 
fever are among the common causes. 

Treatment: Determine the cause and remove it. Give urinary 
antiseptics as methylene blue, balsam copaiba, etc. ; remove calculi, 
irrigate bladder with boric acid solution. 

Diseases op the Circulatory Organs 

Describe the symptoms of pericarditis in the bovine species. 

Usually of traumatic origin. Digestive disturbances, sensitive- 
ness to pressure in the region of the reticulum, tympany of rumen 
after meals, hurried breathing, groaning, irregular pulse, friction 
sounds synchronous with the heart-beat followed later by splashing 
or metallic tinkling sound; dropsical swellings in the dew-lap and 
sides of sternum ; pleurisy and pneumonia may complicate matters. 

State the usual causes (dietetic and anatomic) of traumatic pericar- 
ditis in cattle and goats. Give prevention and treatment. 

Anatomically, the reticulum, into which most foreign bodies are 
passed, lies against the diaphragm. On expiration and during 
rumination, the diaphragm is brought in contact with the pericar- 
dium and the sharp objects are thus directed into the latter. 

Dietetic causes: Ruminants swallow food with little masti- 
cation ; pins, needles, hay- wire, pieces of tin, etc., if in the feed, are 
readily swallowed. 

Prevention: Avoid the presence of foreign bodies in the feed. 
Cut hay-wires in the middle instead of near the joints. 

Treatment : Generally useless ; give laxatives ; stand animal with 
front parts elevated. Surgically remove the offending object 
through the rumen or chest wall. 

Give causes and symptoms of insufficiency of the cardiac valves, 

auriculoventricular and semilunar. 

Insufficiency may be caused by endocarditis which leaves the 

valves thickened and rigid ; cardiac hypertrophy, tumors, parasites, 

aneurism of aorta near the heart; overexertion may injure the 

valves. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 187 

Insufficiency of the right auriculoventricular valve is shown by 
a systolic murmur, a feeble pulse, distention of the veins, jugular 
pulse and oedema of the extremities. 

Insufficiency of the left auriculoventricular valve is accom- 
panied by a systolic murmur, passive congestion of the lungs, indura- 
tion of the lung tissue, pulmonary oedema, pulse slightly weaker, 
dyspnoea on exercise. 

Insufficiency of the semilunar valve of the aorta is usually accom- 
panied by hypertrophy, which gives an increased cardiac dulness 
on percussion, a stronger impulse on palpation and a full, strong, 
bounding pulse; thrill of the wall of the thorax over the heart; a 
diastolic murmur which shows its greatest intensity in the left fourth 
intercostal space below the shoulder line. 

Insufficiency of the semilunar valve of the pulmonary artery 
shows the same as the preceding, except there is no change in the 
pulse and it is usually accompanied by respiratory disturbances. 

Give the treatment for valvular disease of the heart. 

Secure rest for the patient. Give heart tonics as, digitalis, 
strophanthus, etc. Slaughter meat-producing animals. 

What are the usual causes of dropsy of the abdomen, limbs and beneath 
the venter? 
Valvular heart disease, cirrhosis of the liver, diseases of the 
kidneys, circulatory obstructions which produce venous congestion 
as, tumors, aneurisms, etc. 

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of aneurism. 

Causes: Debilitated vascular walls, violence which may rup- 
ture the arterial coat, violent exercise, increased blood-pressure, 
obstruction by embolus and arteritis. 

Symptoms: Depends on the location. In general, we note: a 
soft tumor pulsating with the heart ; a double rushing sound, palpi- 
tation, cardiac weakness, rapid fatigue, vertigo, and venous 
congestion. 

Treatment: Unsatisfactory. Rest the patient; give a low diet; 
apply compression or ligature above and below the aneurism. In- 
ternal aneurism, which is seldom diagnosed, is irremediable. 

In what animals and at what age is cyanosis liable to occur? 

In the new-born animal. It is due to the failure of the foramen 
ovale to close. 



188 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Diseases of the Respiratory Organs 

Define epistaxis and give its causes. 

Bleeding from the nose. It may be due to traumatism, violent 
exertion, parasites, granulating tumors, ulceration of the nasal pas- 
sages, anthrax, glanders, purpura hemorrhagica, hasmophilia, etc. 

State causes, symptoms and treatment of nasal gleet. 

Nasal gleet or chronic rhinitis may follow the acute form or it 
may be due to diseased teeth; infection or catarrh of the nasal 
sinuses. It is also seen in glanders. 

Symptoms : A continuous, unilateral or bilateral nasal discharge 
of a thick, creamy consistency. The submaxillary lymph-glands are 
hard and enlarged ; ulcers sometimes form on the mucous membrane ; 
the temperature remains normal and the patient becomes anemic 
and emaciated. 

Treatment: Locally, apply astringent antiseptics, such as nasal 
douches with Dobell's solution. Internally, give tonics. 

What parasites attack the throat in solipeds? Give symptoms, pre- 
vention and treatment in each case. 

Hcemopis sanguisuga {horse leech) attaches itself to the walls 
of the pharynx and larynx and produces cough, laryngitis, dys- 
phagia and epistaxis. Prevent by avoiding waters harboring the 
parasite. Treat by throwing salt solution on them and remove 
with a dry towel or forceps. 

(Estrus larvcB (hots) are sometimes attached to the pharynx and 
larynx. They produce chronic irritation, cough and dyspnoea. 
Prevention depends upon the destruction of the bots and the mature 
fly, the oestrus equi. Treatment consists of removing the bots with 
the forceps or hands. Laryngotomy may be necessary. 

Give the symptoms and treatment of oedema of the glottis. 

Sudden appearance of dyspnoea and an extensive painless, oede- 
matous swelling in the laryngeal region. The temperature is nor- 
mal; sweating, an anxious expression and paroxysm of coughing 
are observed. 

Treatment: Perform tracheotomy and insert tube. Apply 
astringent and absorbing agents externally. Burrow's lotion or 
white lotion could be used on cotton and held in place by a throat 
bandage. 

State the usual causes of inhalation bronchitis and pneumonia. 

Faulty methods of drenching which allows medicine to enter the 
trachea; dysphagia due to pharyngitis, tetanus, etc. Sometimes 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 189 

follows chloroform anaesthesia; inhalation of smoke or irritant 
gases ; regurgitation of food when in a comatose condition as in milk 
fever. May follow tracheotomy operation. 

Give the diagnostic symptoms, prevention and treatment of inhalation 
pneumonia. 

Fevei, anorexia, cough, bronchial rales, dyspnoea, fetid odor to 
the expired air, mucopurulent nasal discharge containing shreds of 
necrotic tissue ; dulness in the lower part of the thorax. 

Prevention: Guard against causative factors. Be careful in 
drenching and see that no part of the medicine enters the trachea. 
Don 't drench cows with milk fever, nor horses with tetanus, pharyn- 
gitis or other conditions in which there is danger of inhalation of 
the fluid. 

Treatment: Antiseptic inhalations of the vapor or eucalyptus, 
tar, carbolic acid or turpentine. Intratracheal irrigation with a 
1 per cent, solution of hydrogen peroxide in a normal salt solution. 
Give stimulants and antipyretics. 

What domestic animal is most susceptible to bronchial asthma? Give 
causes, symptoms and treatment for this disease. 

The dog is most subject to bronchial asthma. 

Causes: Nervous origin, reflexly from pneumogastric irritation 
due to digestive disorders. The muscle fibres of the bronchi contract 
and narrow the lumen, thus bringing on paroxysms of coughing. 

Symptoms: Obesity, sluggishness, paroxysmal cough and 
dyspnoea. Usually have digestive disorders. 

Treatment : Antispasmodics per rectum or subcutem ; cathartics ; 
dietary restrictions to lessen obesity. 

What animals suffer from strongylus rufescens? Name the disease 
produced and the symptoms. 
The sheep and goat. 

The disease is variously known as verminous bronchitis, hron- 
chial strongylosis, hoose, husk and paper skin disease. 

Symptoms: Occurs enzootically ; loss of appetite, unthriftiness, 
emaciation, fever, dyspnoea, fits of coughing, convulsions, anaemia 
and emaciation. 

What is the treatment for verminous bronchitis in calves? 

Inhalations of oil of eucalyptus and turpentine, in a vapor of 
steam. Intratracheal injection of 15 to 20 c.c. of a 5 per cent, 
solution of creolin in olive oil. Give stimulants and nourishing food. 



190 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Give cause, symptoms and treatment of gapes in fowls. 

Cause : This disease is due to the presence of the parasite, synga- 
mus trachealis, in the trachea. 

Sjrmptoms: The bird gapes, sneezes, coughs and discharges 
mucus, which often contains the worm, from the mouth; dulness, 
drooping of wings, inappetency. Worms may be seen in the trachea. 

Treatment: Remove the worm with forceps or a loop of horse 
hair. 

State the immediate and the remote causes of acute pulmonary conges- 
tion. Give the treatment. 
The immediate cause is a rush of blood to the lungs. Remote 
causes are: fat, plethoric condition; sudden chilling; infectious 
diseases; overfeeding; hot weather; heart diseases and venous 
stasis. 

Treatment: Venesection, counter-irritation over thorax and 
friction to extremities; heart stimulants, plenty of fresh air. 
Usually terminates in pneumonia or recovery in 24 hours. 

Give the distinctive symptoms of bronchitis, pneumonia and pleurisy, 
respectively, in the early and fully developed stages. 

Early stages: Bronchitis, dry hard cough, normal percussion 
sound, bilateral, sibilant rales and dyspnoea. Pneumonia (pulmon- 
ary congestion), restrained cough, increased resonance on percus- 
sion, unilateral crepitant rales, dyspnoea more marked. Pleurisy, 
painful cough, tenderness to percussion, bilateral friction sounds, 
pleuritic ridge, high temperature. 

Fully developed stages: Bronchitis, resonance on percussion, 
mucous rales, temperature high. Pneumonia, dulness on percus- 
sion, absence of vesicular murmur, temperature high throughout the 
attack. Pleurisy, temperature lower, flatness on percussion bounded 
by a horizontal line, increased resonance above. Tenderness on 
percussion. 

Give the S5miptoms of gangrene of the lungs. 

Rapid respiration, moist rales, purulent nasal discharge contain- 
ing shreds of necrotic tissue, fetid odor to breath, high fever, rapid 
weak pulse and great prostration. 

Give the symptoms, course and treatment of acute diffused pleuritis. 
Chill, fever, hard pulse; rapid, shallow breathing, patient re- 
mains standing, pleuritic ridge, suppressed cough, tenderness in 
the intercostal region, groaning when turned sharply, friction 
sounds. Later, there appears a horizontal line of dulness, splashing 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 191 

metallic tinkling, oedemas. Course may run from a few days to 
several weeks, depending upon the continuance of the hydrothorax. 
Treatment: In early stages, venesection, counter-irritants on 
chest, such as mustard plasters, oil of mustard and oil silk jacket; 
apply friction to legs and bandage them warmly. Give a laxative 
diet. Later, thoracentesis may be advisable to remove the exudate. 
Give diuretics and stimulants. 

Describe a case of pleurisy in the dog. 

About the same as previously mentioned in the horse. Dogs 
sit on haunches and pant. In case of effusion, the horizontal line of. 
dulness changes with the different attitudes the dog may assume. 

Give the cause, symptoms and treatment of hydrothorax. 

Caused by pleurisy, venous stasis, heart disease, kidney disease, 
anaemia, parasites, etc. 

Symptoms: Dyspnoea, horizontal line of dulness in lower part 
of thorax, no fever; general dropsy, if from heart and kidney 
diseases. 

Treatment: Diuretics, derivatives, thoracentesis, laxative diet 
and tonics. Usually incurable. 

Describe the symptoms of pulmonary emphysema. Outline treatment. 

Double expiratory movement, husky, wheezing cough, dilated 
nostrils, dyspnoea easily produced by exercise, muggy weather or 
a full stomach. Digestive troubles often accompany heaves. Occa- 
sionally there will be seen a glairy nasal discharge. Cardiac 
weakness. 

Treatment: Dietetic measures such as a laxative diet, concen- 
trated foods and a restricted amount of hay or straw. Give arsenic 
in graduated doses. Belladonna is useful to suppress the cough. 

How would you guard against fraudulent attempts to conceal the 

symptoms of heaves? 

Keep the horse under observation for 48 hours. Give plenty of 

hay and water and exercise. The dilated nostrils are hard to conceal. 

Adrenalin chloride aggravates respiration and may be an aid to 

diagnosis. 

Diseases op the Digestive Organs 

Define glossitis and give causes for same. 

Glossitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane and sub- 
stance of the tongue. It may be due to mechanical, thermal and 
chemical agents. Infection should be reckoned with, especially 
specific infections, as in foot and mouth disease, lip and leg ulcera- 
tion of sheep, etc. 



192 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

What animals and what organs are infested by linguatula taenoides? 
Give diagnosis and treatment, both therapeutic and pre- 
ventive. 
This parasite infests the nasal chambers, turbinated bones, fron- 
tal sinuses and pharynx of the dog and occasionally the horse. 

The diagnosis is based upon sneezing, coughing, rubbing nose, 
dyspnoea, epistaxis, convulsions and finding the parasite in the 
discharge. 

Treatment: Nasal douche of benzene 5 parts, and olive oil 100 
parts. Prevent dogs from eating the raw offal of sheep. Destroy 
the heads and carcasses of dead sheep containing the larvse. 

How does vomiting in cattle differ from regurgitation? Where does 
the ejected food come from? How is vomiting diagnosed 
and treated? 
In vomition, there is a greater effort made and the quantity 
is so great that it runs from the mouth, whereas, in regurgitation, no 
effort is required and the amount is so small that it is retained in 
the mouth. The ejected material comes from the rumen. Vomit- 
ing is diagnosed by the uneasiness, straining and peculiar smell of 
the ejected material. Treatment is seldom called for as the act 
relieves the patient and removes the cause. If too prolonged, give 
sedatives, such as bromides and chloral and empty the bowels 
with liberal doses of Epsom salts. 

What parasites affect the gullet of cattle? State other habitats of any 
of these parasites. 
Spiroptera scutata and the larvaa of the oestrus (hypoderma) 
bovis are also found in the stomach of cattle and the gullet of the 
horse. Psorospermia oviforme {coccidia) inhabit the mucous mem- 
brane of the gullet and various other organs, including the liver, 
intestines, etc., of sheep, goats, pigs, rabbits and man. Sarcosporidia 
invade the muscles of the ox, pig, sheep and horse. 

Describe the symptoms of a case that on post-mortem examination 
reveals a ruptured stomach. 

The abdomen enormously distended with gas on the left side 
under the ribs. Colicky pains, dyspnoea, belching of gas, retching 
and regurgitation of stomach contents. Sudden paleness of mucous 
membranes, syncope and death. 

Give causes, symptoms and treatment of tympanites in cattle. 
Also called ^'hoove/' ^'hoven/' and hloating. 
Caused by gaseous fermentation of the contents of the rumen. 
Overfeeding on green foods, especially clover when wet with dew. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 193 

Paresis of the rumen may cause or follow tympanites. Poisons, 
spoiled foods and foreign bodies are also causative factors. 

Symptoms : Abnormal distention of the left side of the abdomen. 
Drum-like sound on percussion, crepitation heard due to gas bubbles. 
Suspension of rumination, belching, rapid breathing, frothy foam 
from mouth, protrusion of anus and sometimes bloody fagces. Death 
in 15 to 30 minutes. 

Treatment: Puncture the rumen with trocar. Pass stomach 
tube and siphon off the contents of the rumen. Administer through 
the tube, aromatic spirits of ammonia, oil of turpentine or pepper- 
mint. Follow with a large dose of Epsom salts when the tympany 
subsides. Any treatment must be prompt and energetic. 

Describe the symptoms of jaundice. Name causes. 

Icterus or jaundice is characterized by a yellow discoloration of 
the visible mucous membranes and skin, and the presence of bile pig- 
ment in the urine ; fseces are pale and dry and the patient shows dul- 
ness and loss of appetite. 

Causes are numerous, viz., catarrh of duodenum and bile duct, 
gall-stones, compression of bile duct by tumors and overloaded 
stomach; acute and chronic hepatitis, rupture of gall-bladder (no 
gall-bladder in the horse), poisons, parasites, icterus neonatorum, 
severe infectious diseases, etc. 

State the relative gravity of jaundice in the horse and in the dog. 

Generally ends in recovery in the horse. In the dog, it is more 
serious and usually ends in death. 

Give the causes and symptoms of acute gastric indigestion. 

Overloading, spoiled foods, fermentiscible foods, ice-water, espe- 
cially after feeding, previous disease, overwork, defective teeth and 
parasites. 

Symptoms: Violent colic, bloating of abdomen and under the 
ribs on the left side ; suppression of peristalsis and passage of faeces ; 
attempts to eructate and vomit ; hurried breathing. 

In acute tympanitic gastric indigestion, what is the usual reaction 
of the contents of the viscus ? What measures, mechanical, 
chemical and medicinal, would be especially indicated? 
Reaction acid. 

Treatment: Pass stomach tube; lavage; puncture the stomach 
with a trocar passed through the twelfth or thirteenth intercostal 
space on the left side; give 6 or 8 ounces of sodium hyposulphite 
in solution. Aromatic spirits of ammonia, turpentine, carbolic acid 
13 



194 . VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

and other antiferments may be useful. After the acute symptoms 
subside, give a full dose of aloes. 

Give the diagnostic symptoms of (a) crapulous colic, (b) purely 
nervous colic. Give treatment of each. 

(a) Crapulous or engorgement colic is manifested by an over- 
distended abdomen, dull percussion sound, continuous dull pain 
and a "saw-horse" attitude. Rectal examination reveals the solid 
ingesta. 

(b) Purely nervous or spasmodic colic is diagnosed by the remit- 
tent pain, intervals of ease ; uneasiness, kicking of abdomen, getting 
up and down, increased peristalsis ; more or less fasces passed. 

Treatment: In crapulous form, give an aloes ball or one quart 
of linseed oil or both. Quick-acting cathartics, such as arecoline in 
one-fourth grain doses, repeated every twenty minutes. Quiet the 
pain with chloral hydrate. Spasmodic colic should be treated with 
antispasmodics, such as chloral hydrate and cannabis indica. Empty 
the bowels with an aloes ball, salts or oil. 

State the cause of diarrhoea in the new-born and prescribe preventive 
treatment. 

See ''white scours," page 294. This disease may be simple or 
contagious. Among the many causes are improper food, bacteria, 
navel infection, unclean feeding utensils, cold and weakness. Pre- 
vention: Dietary measures; scald feeding utensils; intestinal anti- 
septics, such as, bismuth subnitrate, phenol, etc. Sanitary measures 
as prescribed under "white scours." 

What is intussusception? Give symptoms, prognosis and treatment. 

Invagination or telescoping of one portion of intestine into 
another. 

Symptoms: Obstruction, vomiting, no faeces passed; continuous 
colicky pains ; later, fever appears, weak pulse, sweating and death. 
Tubular sections of intestines may be passed. Obstruction may be 
felt in the dog. 

Prognosis : Usually fatal. 

Treatment: Laparotomy and replacement of intestine is the 
only available measure. Linseed oil and antispasmodics may relieve. 

What genera (equine, bovine, porcine, canine) are most liable to 
intestinal invagination? Why? 
More common in bovine ; less common in canines and very rare 
in the equine and porcine. 

The spiral arrangement of the intestines and the looser disposi- 
tion of the mesentery may account for the more frequent appear- 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 195 

ance of this condition in bovines. In the equine, the voluminous 
caecum may receive the ileum and the spacious colon, the caicum. 
The intestines of the dog and hog are comparatively simple. 

Give the symptoms and treatment for lead poisoning in cattle. 

Emaciation, shortness of breath, paralysis of extremities, blue 
line on the gums and abortion are seen in the chronic form. The 
acute form shows blindness, stupor, coma, convulsions or delirious 
excitement, torpor of bowels, gastro-enteritis, vomiting, salivation, 
suppression of milk and urine and muscular cramps. 

Treatment: Sulphate of magnesia or other forms of sulphates 
which form insoluble sulphates of lead. Chronic form : give potas- 
sium iodide and tonics. 

Mention two intestinal parasites of the horse. Write a prescription 
for worms in the horse. 
Ascaris megalocephala and oxyuris curvula. 

Antimonii et Potassii tartras 3iij 

Div. pulv. No. iv. 

Sig. — Give one powder in drinking water every six 
hours and follow with 



n 



Sodii sulphatis Sxvj 

Sig. — Dissolve in water and give as a drench. 



State the factors that produce gall-stones. Give prophylactic and 
therapeutic treatment. 

Precipitation of biliary solids, bacterial infection, concentration 
of the bile due to idleness, and dry feeding; presence of colloid 
material as mucus, pus, blood and epithelial cells due to inflam- 
mation. 

Prophylaxis : Avoid dry feeds ; give plenty of water and exercise 
and keep bowels active. 

Treatment: Give narcotics to lessen pain; cathartics such as 
calomel or olive oil; salicylate of soda or salicylic acid as an intes- 
tinal antiseptic. Operative removal of stones. 

What tapeworms infest solipeds and what is known of their larval 
forms? 
Taenia perfoliata, taenia mamillana and taenia plicata. Nothing 
known of their larval forms. 

What symptoms indicate ascaridae and what sclerostomata in the 
bowels of the horse? How does the prognosis differ in the 
two cases? 
Ascaridae = slight, recurrent colics, ravenous appetite, unthrifti- 



196 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

ness, gastro-intestinal catarrh, passing of worms 6 to 12 inches 
long. 

Sclerostomata = violent colic, frequent defecation, followed by 
arrest, eyes sunken, cold sweating, paralysis of bowels, death. 
These symptoms are not due to the presence of the worm in the 
bowel but to its embryonic form which lodges in the anterior mesen- 
teric artery, causing a thrombus and emboli to form. The latter being 
carried to the peripheral arteries of the intestinal walls produce 
the fatal results. Otherwise, the mere presence of the mature worm 
in the bowels, unless in large numbers, may pass unnoticed. If 
abundant the symptoms are similar to those of ascariasis and, in 
addition, marked anaemia and emaciation. 

Prognosis: Good in ascariasis; very bad in case of obstruction 
of the mesenteric arteries by sclerostomata {" thrombo-embolic 
colic''). 

How may the following be distinguished: sclerostoma equinum, 
sclerostoma tetracanthum, oxyuris curvula and oxyuris 
mastigodes? State the relative gravity of infestation by 
each, giving reasons. 
The sclerostoma equinum is larger than the sclerostoma tetra- 
canthum, and its head terminates bluntly, whereas the sclerostoma 
tetracanthum has a tapering anterior extremity. Oxyuris curvula 
and oxyuris mastigodes are nearly identical except that the female 
of the latter is 3 to 4 inches long and of the former only 1 to I14 
inches. 

Sclerostoma tetracanthum is comparatively harmless; it sucks 
blood and may injure the mucous membrane, producing 
unthriftiness. 

Sclerostoma equinum is very harmful ; its embryonic form enters 
the circulation and produces thrombo-embolic colic which ends in 
death. 

The oxyuridse lodge in the rectum and cause uneasiness and 
unthriftiness. 

What conditions favor the propagation of strongylus (sclerostoma) 
equinum and tetracanthum and what measures will pre- 
vent their production? 
Fecal contamination of water and feed favors the development 
of these worms. As preventive measures, clear the intestinal tract 
of the worms and destroy the faeces containing the parasites and 
eggs of same. Prevent contamination of water with faeces. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 197 

What domestic animals are liable to be attacked by the hookworm 

(uncinaria, anchylostoma) ? How do such worms enter 

the body and what sjrmptoms do they produce? Give 

treatment. 

Ox, sheep, eat and more commonly the dog. The worms enter 

the intestinal tract through the drinking water which contains the 

larvae. 

Symptoms: Digestive derangements, dulness and indifference-, 
whining, tympanites, diarrhoea, loss of appetite, nervous disorders, 
nausea, anaemia and emaciation. 

Treatment: Thymol, 2 to 15 grain doses. Separate the sick 
from the well to prevent reinfection. Thoroughly clean and disin- 
fect kennels. Supply pure drinking water. 

What are coccidia? Name the domestic animals infested by coccidia, 
mentioning in each case the organs infested. Give diag- 
nosis, prevention and treatment in each case. 

Coccidia are a genera of sporozoa, single-celled microorganisms 
provided with a protoplasmic-celled body in which is found a 
nucleus. 

Cattle, sheep, rabbits, fowls and, occasionally, dogs and pigs 
are infested. The intestines are more commonly affected in cattle, 
sheep and fowls, whereas the liver is usually the seat of disease in 
rabbits, dogs and pigs. Both organs may be affected in all animals. 
There are a few cases of diseases of the air passages reported in 
cattle, dogs and rabbits, due to coccidia. 

Diagnosis : Fetid, hemorrhagic diarrhoea, fever, loss of appetit-e, 
weakness, death, jaundice, when liver is affected; coccidia may be 
found in the faeces by microscopic examination. 

Prevention : Provide pure water ; disinfect faeces with 3 per cent, 
watery solution of sulphuric acid ; destroy carcasses and thoroughly 
disinfect. 

Treatment : Remove from pastures ; give dry foods and intestinal 
astringents and antiseptics. Useless to treat the hepatic form. 

Describe all the symptoms produced by constipation in the dog. 

Small, hard, glazed stools, straining, no stools passed; hot, ten- 
der, swollen, bulging anus; colicky pains, tenderness of abdomen, 
vomiting, fever, icterus, etc. 

What are the symptoms of intestinal parasites in the dog other than 
the passage of worms by the mouth or rectum? 
Diarrhoea, vomiting, emaciation, nervousness, convulsions, anae- 
mia, pot-bellied, easily fatigued, whining. 



198 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Describe the symptoms of acute parenchymatous hepatitis in the dog 
and give treatment. 
Tenderness to pressure over the liver, pain during defecation, 
jaundice, fever, constipation and vomiting. 

As treatment, give mild laxatives such as olive or castor oil. 
Calomel is very good. Intestinal antiseptics such as salol, sulpho- 
carbolates, etc., are useful. Restrict the diet, avoiding fats. 

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of peritonitis. 

Causes: Infection, traumatic injuries, operative wounds in the 
abdomen, castration, laparotomy, perforating ulcer of the intes- 
tines, rupture of the stomach or intestine, perforation of a parturient 
womb, rupture of abscesses in the peritoneal cavity, metastasis. 

Symptoms: Presence of a wound with spreading swelling, 
oedema and tenderness of the abdomen, tucked up abdomen, high 
fever, quick, wiry pulse, careful decubitus and rising, short, catchy 
respiratory movements, straddling gait, short steps, constipation, 
effusion may cause fluctuation and enlargement of the abdomen. 

Treatment: Local antiseptics, drainage of wounds, irrigation 
of the peritoneal cavity with sterile water; saline laxatives, intes- 
tinal antiseptics ; stimulants ; apply mustard over abdomen. 

What is ascites? Give causes of ascites. 

Ascites is an accumulation of a serous fluid in the peritoneal 
cavity. It is caused by chronic peritonitis, venous stasis due to 
obstruction of the portal vein by tumors, indurative hepatitis, etc. 
Valvular disease of the heart, kidney diseases, hydrasmia, tubercu- 
losis and heaves are also etiological factors. 

Mention the different forms of ergotism in cattle. Give the symptoms 
of each form mentioned. 
Acute : Gastro-enteritis, ptyalism, vomiting, colicky pains, diar- 
rhoea, ulcerous stomatitis, labor pains, abortion, prolapsus uteri, 
insensibility to pain, paralyses, dilatation of the pupils, muscular 
cramps. 

Chronic: Necrosis of extremities such as the ears, tail, teats, 
claws and lower leg; abortion and sterility. 

Give causes, symptoms and treatment of distomiasis (liver rot) in 
sheep. 

Caused by the presence of the liver-fluke parasite, distoma 
hepaticum, in the bile ducts. 

Symptoms : During the period of invasion of the parasite, lasting 
2 to 3 months, the sheep gain in flesh ; later, dropsy, emaciation, diar- 
rhoea alternating with constipation; variable temperature, icterus, 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 199 

presence of the ova in the faeces, usually terminates in death. Some 
recover to be reinfected the following year and then succumb. 

Treatment: Prevention; drain soils, avoid low, damp, infected 
pastures, give common salt in feed, feed well and fortify the system ; 
tonics, vermifuges. Treatment is unsatisfactory. 

State the effects of overfeeding cattle and swine with cotton-seed meal. 
May produce garget and mammitis in cattle. Will destroy the life 
of swine with symptoms of scurvy and grave constitutional disorders. 
In both animals, it may produce diarrhoea, lachrymation, abscess for- 
mation, ulceration of the cornea, staphyloma, fever, oedema of the 
legs, congestion of the liver and spleen, and high-colored urine. 

Diseases of the Nervous System 

What is loco poisoning? Where and when is it enzootic and how can 
it be prevented ? 

Loco poisoning is a disease of animals, manifested by cerebral 
disturbances, caused by eating a certain variety of leguminous 
plants. After once eating these plants, a desire for more becomes 
a veritable craze or neurosis and the patient becomes unmanageable, 
vicious and loses flesh. 

It is enzootic in the summer and fall of the year in the Rocky 
Mountain states and Pacific coast region. To prevent the disease, 
do not pasture animals on fields where the plant is present, nor 
feed hay and grasses from such fields. 

Describe immobility. Give its causes, symptoms, diagnosis and treat- 
ment. 

Immobility, chronic hydrocephalus, is a chronic disease of the 
brain. 

Causes: Heredity, congestion of the brain, traumas, venous 
obstruction, tumors, insolation, hepatic, gastric and pulmonary 
disorders. 

Symptoms: Stupid expression, sluggish movements, dulled re- 
flexes, slow mastication, failure to respond to commands, standing 
with legs crossed or in other abnormal positions for long periods of 
time, incoordinate movements. 

Diagnosis: Easy in well-marked cases. The above symptoms, 
together with a normal temperature, are almost conclusive. 

Treatment: Derivatives, nux vomica, purgatives, potassium 
iodide and other drugs may relieve, but the disease is incurable. 

Describe abdominal vertigo. Give causes, symptoms, prevention and 
treatment. 
Abdominal vertigo, stomach staggers, is a complication of gastric 



200 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

and hepatic disorder associated with giddiness and unsteady move- 
ments, caused by overloading the stomach, worms and gastro- 
intestinal catarrh. 

Symptoms: Gastric irritation, colicky pains, eructation of gas, 
delirium followed by a comatose condition. 

Prevention : Reduce rations and exercise regularly. 

Treatment : Give intestinal evacuants ; venesection or derivatives 
such as arecoline and pilocarpine; laxative diet; chloral hydrate 
during the violence of the attack. 

Give the symptoms of inflammation of the meninges of the brain. 

Phrenitis, encephalitis^ pachymeningitis or inflammation of the 
brain proper and leptomeningitis ^ inflammation of the coverings 
of the brain usually coexist and are indistinguishable, symptomati- 
cally ; they are shown by hypersesthesia, delirium, pawing, plunging, 
and violent convulsions, followed by dulness, stupor, somnolence, 
muscular weakness, anaesthesia, paralysis and coma. 

Give the causes and symptoms of gid in sheep. 

Caused by the presence of the cystic form of the tcenia coenurus 
{cmnurus cerehralis) in the brain. 

Symptoms: Timidity, nervousness, dulness, dilated pupils, 
drooping lids, circular movements, pivoting on one foot, plunging 
ahead, hemiplegia and paraplegia. 

Give causes, symptoms and treatment of chorea in the dog. 

Causes : "Weakness, previous disease, microbian toxic matters 
in the blood, hence it usually follows distemper. 

Symptoms: Local twitching of one or both fore limbs, neck, 
head, maxilla, eyelids, hind limbs, or the whole body may partici- 
pate; movements are rhythmical, are less active when recumbent, 
and may or may not be absent during sleep. 

Treatment: Hygienic measures, fresh air and sunshine, nerve 
tonics, such as arsenic and strychnine ; nerve sedatives may be indi- 
cated if too restless, such as belladonna, chloral hydrate, bromides 
and morphine. Usually incurable. 

What symptoms would tend to distinguish cerebral anaemia from cere- 
bral hyperaemia? 

Cerebral Anwmia. Cerehral Eyperwmia. 

Loss of consciousness. Cerebral excitement. 

Stumbling. Delirium. 

Vomiting in dogs. Mucous membranes injected. 

Paleness of mucous membranes. Respiratory movements accelerated. 
Respiratory movements shallow and 
slow. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 201 

Give the symptoms of cerebrospinal meningitis. 

Often occurs enzootically. First stages: Sudden attack, fever, 
hypersensitiveness, delirium. Later, paralysis of various parts, as 
the pharynx, shown by inability to swallow, loss of appetite, unequal 
dilatation of pupils, loss of reflexes, decubitus, spasms of various 
groups of muscles, opisthotonus. The symptoms vary in different 
individuals and no two appear exactly the same. 

Describe a case of sunstroke and give treatment. 

Insolation or sunstroke comes on suddenly ; shown by cessation 
of perspiration, dyspnoea, staggering and falling down, weak pulse, 
high temperature (104°-110° F.), cerebral excitement and loss of 
reflexes. 

Treatment : Remove to a cool place ; apply ice-bags on the head 
and give cold water enemas ; quiet with chloral hydrate ; give heart 
stimulants such as ammonium carbonate, camphor, digitalis, etc. 

Diseases of the Organs of Locomotion 

Mention causes, symptoms and treatment of articular rheumatism. 

Causes: Infection, retained after-birth, cold and dampness. 
Often seen in connection with endocarditis. 

Symptoms : Shifting lameness ; heat, swelling and tenderness of 
one or more joints; decubitus, joints semiflexed, fever, loss of 
appetite. 

Treatment: Antirheumatics such as salicylic acid or salicylate 
of soda in three-drachm doses every six hours; aspirin, antipyrin 
and salol are also useful. Locally, apply linimentum saponis, arti- 
ficial oil of wintergreen, and heat. Slaughter meat animals. 

Give causes, symptoms and treatment of muscular rheumatism. 

Causes: Infection, cold, dampness, predisposition. Usually 
occurs in well-fed and nourished animals. 

Symptoms: Shifting, recurrent lameness; muscular soreness; 
symptoms vary, depending upon the muscles involved ; thus we may 
observe lameness in the shoulder, posterior limbs or neck, difficult 
mastication, breathing, etc. Fever is usually absent, although there 
may be a slight rise in severe cases. Appetite remains good. Dogs 
cry out when handled. 

Treatment: Provide warm, dry quarters, warm blankets and 
administer antirheumatics, such as salicylates, quinine, salol, etc. 
Give a laxative diet and occasional doses of saline cathartics. A 
Turkish bath may benefit dogs. 



202 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

What domestic animals suffer most from trichinosis? Give usual 
channels of infection, diagnosis and prevention. 

This disease occurs most commonly in swine, rarely in dogs and 
cats. The infection enters through the digestive tract by eating 
meat containing the parasite, trichina spiralis. 

Diagnosis: Rheumatoid symptoms; harpoon muscle and obtain 
specimens for microscopical examination ; examine the faeces for the 
adult worm. Hogs often show diarrhcea, and during the migration 
of the embryos into the muscles, rubbing, scratching, difficult mas- 
tication, and painful breathing. 

Prevention: Destroy carcasses of trichinous animals. Destroy 
rats and mice around slaughter houses as they are frequent hosts 
of the parasite. 

Describe a case of spasm of the muscles of the hind leg and its treat- 
ment. 

Usually seen in the femoral region, due to a nervous affection of 
the anterior crural muscles. Appears suddenly after standing; 
leg held stiffly ; appears longer than its fellow ; knuckling at the fet- 
lock, resting on the toe ; difficulty in moving forward or backward, 
dragging of the extremity ; anterior muscles rigid 

Treatment: Rub stimulating liniment over the stifle; rest the 
patient and give a laxative diet. 

Diseases op the Skin 

Give the symptoms and treatment of acne. 

Acne is an inflammatory disease of the sebaceous glands, charac- 
terized by tenderness of the skin, swellings the size of a pea, vesicles, 
pustules, exudation, loss of hair, scars and sometimes enlargement 
of the submaxillary lymph-glands; absence of fever. Treatment 
consists of the application of astringent and antiseptic washes, such 
as a 2 per cent, solution of aluminum acetate or acetate of lead. 

Describe the symptoms and give the treatment of favus (ringworm). 

Characterized by the presence of numerous red spots in the 
skin, which gradually enlarge and become covered with a thin, gray- 
ish scale under which is serum; the hair breaks off, the circumfer- 
ence of the diseased area becomes reddened, the centre, gray-colored 
and cupped shape; there is great itching present and the disease 
tends to spread over various parts of the body. 

Treatment: Scrape or curette deeply; paint with tincture of 
iodine or use mercurial ointments. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 203 

Give the symptoms, course and treatment of gangrenous dermatitis. 

This disease is generally preceded by swelling, redness and 
sensitiveness. Then follows discoloration, insensitiveness, putrid 
odor ; a dry or moist portion of the skin is cast off, revealing a raw, 
ulcerative surface. 

Course : Progressive, unless properly attended to. May extend 
deep into the tendons and ligaments or produce fatal septicaemia. 

Treatment: Remove dead parts; apply dry dressings of iodo- 
form, boric acid or lead preparations. 

Give the cause, symptoms and treatment of urticaria. 

Urticaria is an inflammatory affection of the skin, characterized 
by a sudden development of a serous infiltration of the papillary 
bodies and of the malpighian layer of the skin. It often disappears 
completely after a short time. 

Causes: Digestive derangements, plethora, rich grain feeding, 
hot weather, intestinal poisons, bites of insects, individual idiosyn- 
crasy, poisonous plants as poison ivy, etc. 

Symptoms: Sudden eruption; in a few hours a healthy skin 
becomes covered with a uniform eruption of nodules, or blotches, 
some of which may coalesce and form large areas. Itching may or 
may not be present; individual nodules subside to be followed by 
others. 

Treatment: Saline cathartics, aloes, alkaline diuretics; allay 
itching by bathing with solutions of sodium bicarbonate, phenol or 
menthol. 

Name the different forms of parasitic skin disease, mentioning the 
parasite for each form named. 
Sarcoptic mange, due to sarcoptes scabei. 
Psoroptic mange, due to psoroptes communis. 
Symbiotic mange, due to symbiotes communis. 
Demodectic mange, due to demodex f olliculorum. 
Ringworm, due to trycophyton tonsurans. 
Ox warble, due to larva of hypoderma lineata. 
Cutaneous coccidiosis, due to coccidia oviforme. 
Fleas, lice and ticks occasionally burrow under the skin and 
produce irritation. 

What parasites are known to produce cutaneous epizootics? 

All those mentioned above but more especially the sarcoptidse and 
demodecidse. 

Give the cause of poultry acariasis in the horse. Give treatment. 

Housing chickens, infested with the chicken mite (dermanyssus 
gallinae), in or near the stable. The mites become temporary para- 



204 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

sites of the horse, causing pruritus, scratching, rubbing and a rough 
coat. 

Treatment : Wash with a 2 per cent, solution of creolin, or dis- 
solve four ounces of staphisagria in one gallon of boiling water and 
use as a wash when cool. Clean the stable thoroughly and use a 
whitewash containing carbolic acid. 

What are the causes, dietetic, climatic, chemical and traumatic, of 
erythema? Give prevention and treatment of each form 
of erythema. 
Primary erythema is due to external irritants, blows, bites, scald- 
ing, burning, sun's rays, vesicants such as mustard, cantharides, 
acids, lye, insect stings, etc. 

Secondary erythema is due to infectious diseases, as swine plague 
and hog cholera, dog distemper, foot and mouth disease ; also follows 
the ingestion of certain foods as buckwheat, clover and distillers' 
grains. 

Prevention depends upon the avoidance of the above enumerated 
causes. Treatment: Cold, astringent applications such as Burrow's 
lotion, Goulard's extract, etc. Give a laxative diet. 

Mention one of the parasites that causes mange in the dog. 

Demodex foUieulorum causes demodectic or follicular mange, 
which is practically incurable. 

What animals and what regions of the body harbor demodex foUieu- 
lorum ? 'Give symptoms and treatment. 

The dog and pig. The breast, legs, axillary and facial regions 
are usually first affected, later the entire surface of the body and 
legs may be involved. 

Symptoms: The skin becomes red and thickened; loss of the 
hair ; extreme pruritus ; pustules give the skin a papilla ted appear- 
ance. 

Treatment: Unsuccessful; a mixture of gasoline, oil of tar and 
oil of cade has given more or less satisfaction; sulphur and lye is 
used by some, but the great majority of cases show no improvement 
and gradually grow worse, become emaciated and die. Some few 
improve and seem to be cured, only to have the disease break out 
anew. 

Mention the parasites causing scabies in sheep. State the habits of 
these parasites. 
Sarcoptes scabei, rare. 
Psoroptes communis, common scab parasite of sheep. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 205 

The psoroptes live on the surface of the skin, eat wool, irritate 
and cause the animal to bite and pull out the wool. 

The sarcoptes burrow under the skin and produce itching and 
scabs. 

Give the prevention and treatment of acariasis. 

Quarantine regulations; separation of well from affected; thor- 
ough disinfection ; dipping and isolation of newly-purchased animals 
until known to be free from scabies. 

Treatment : Lime and sulphur dips, and a tobacco and sulphur 
dip are recommended by the B. A. I., Dept. of Agriculture. Coal- 
tar products such as creolin, creosote, etc., have given good results. 

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of the disease commonly 
termed " hunger mange." 

This is another name for chronic squamous eczema. 

Causes: Insufficient nourishment, faulty skin hygiene, tender 
skin, nervous temperament, chronic wasting diseases, may follow 
acute eczema. Long administration of iodides is sometimes followed 
by this condition. 

Symptoms: Poor condition, dry lustreless hair which contains 
bran-like scales of epidermis; falling out of the hair; itching; skin 
becomes thickened and occasionally papules and vesicles are seen. 

Treatment : Correct the internal disorders ; give tonics, arsenic ; 
careful grooming, and bathing with non-irritating soap. Feed gener- 
ously with nourishing foods. 



SURGERY* 

"Wounds 

Define wounds. Give a classification of wounds. 

A wound is any injury accompanied by a breach in the continuity 
of an internal or external surface. 

According to cause, wounds are classified as follows: incised, 
lacerated, punctured, contused, stab, gun-shot, bites and caustic. 

What is wound infection? Give treatment of wound infection. 

The presence of microorganisms or their toxic products in a 
wound. Treatment : Drain, irrigate, disinfect thoroughly, and cover 
with aseptic gauze and bandage. Eepeat dressing daily. If im- 
practicable to bandage, apply a protective covering of dusting 
powder. 

State the general principles of antiseptic wound treatment. 

Kemove foreign bodies and necrotic tissue, cleanse wound thor- 
oughly and use a non-irritating antiseptic agent. Cover the wound 
with antiseptic gauze and bandage. In case of operative wounds, 
the site of operation is shaved, washed and bathed with an anti- 
septic agent; if possible an antiseptic pack should be applied for 
24 hours prior to operating. The operator's hands, nails and arms 
should be scrupulously cleansed with soap, water and a stiff brush, 
then with alcohol or ether to dissolve all oily secretions, and, finally, 
immersed for ten minutes or longer in the antiseptic agent. The 
instruments, suture material, dressings, etc., are disinfected by being 
placed in the antiseptic solution for 10 minutes before using. They 
should be handled only by the operator 's disinfected hands. After 
operation and at subsequent visits, dressings are carried out as 
directed above. 

State the distinction between antiseptic and aseptic wound treatment. 

In antiseptic wound treatment, as described above, there are 
many channels of infection overlooked, as from the air, breath of 
operator, etc. ; furthermore, most antiseptic solutions, if efficient 
germicides are irritating to the tissues and retard healing. 

Aseptic wound treatment may be defined as the precaution to 
prevent infection of the surgical wound, while antiseptic surgery 
refers to the method by which the former is accomplished and to 

* Unless otherwise stated all questions relate to the horse. 
206 



QUESTIONS AND -ANSWERS 207 

the treatment of unavoidable infections. So, antiseptic wound 
treatment is giving way to the aseptic method. This latter, as its 
name implies, aims toward the absolute freedom from septic mate- 
rial. This is accomplished by sterilizing all instruments, dressings, 
bandages, etc., with steam, hot air, or boiling in a one or two per cent, 
soda solution. The wound is cleansed with sterile water or steril- 
ized physiological salt solution, but no antiseptic solution, and 
covered with the sterilized dressing. The operator's hands are 
cleansed as in the antiseptic method but are rinsed in sterile water 
to remove all traces of the antiseptic. Some operators use sterilized 
rubber gloves. The operating table, operating field, operator's 
clothes, assistants, all utensils and the air of the room must be 
rendered aseptic. This method is impracticable in veterinary sur- 
gery for obvious reasons. The antiseptic method with aseptic pre- 
cautions is preferred. 

Mention and describe the different methods of wound healing, 

1. Healing by first intention consists of a direct union of the 
margins of the wound through immediate agglutination and without 
suppuration. 

2. Healing by second intention is characterized by suppuration 
and granulation. 

3. Healing by third intention consists in the artificial union of 
wound surfaces that are already granulating and suppurative. It 
is effected by disinfecting and suturing the suppurative granulations. 

4. Healing under an eschar is a form of primary wound healing. 
The protective coat may be dried blood or a scab produced by actual 

' cautery, chemical caustics, dusting powders, etc. 

5. Healing by abnormal granulation and cicatrization takes 
place when great loss of substance occurs, when foreign bodies or 
necrosed pieces of tissue remain in the wound, or when continued 
infection or irritation occurs in fresh or healing wounds. 

State the indications for the use of the continuous suture. 

In non-infected wounds where healing by first intention is antici- 
pated ; in visceral wounds where perfect closure is imperative ; and 
in cases where temporary retention of dressings in the traumatic 
cavity is desired. 

Mention the indications for the reopening of wounds. 

"When infection occurs in the deeper part of a wound as shown 
by escape of discharges or swelling; when necrosed tissue or other 
foreign bodies are present in the deeper part of the wound. In 
wound infection diseases as septicaemia, tetanus, etc. 



208 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Describe the different methods of arresting hemorrhage. 

1. Ligation of the bleeding vessel by grasping the end with for- 
ceps and tying with a strong thread. The vessel may be ligated at 
a centripetal point. 

2. Compression with tampons and bandages, or by an elastic 
bandage (Esmarch's bandage) applied between the wound and the 
heart. 

3. Torsion, which consists of twisting the bleeding vessel on its 
axis. 

4. Cauterization of the bleeding parts forms an eschar which 
acts as an aseptic bandage. 

5. Cold contracts the vessels and narrows their lumen. 

6. Therapeutic agents as alum, sugar of lead, tannin, etc., applied 
externally, by their astringent action, and ergot, adrenalin chloride, 
etc., internally, by their vasoconstrictor action, check hemorrhage. 

Give the treatment for lacerated wounds. 

Fresh lacerated wounds: arrest hemorrhage, irrigate, disinfect, 
provide drainage, suture and bandage. If extensive and healing by 
first intention is impracticable, apply drainage tube and suture as 
much as possible. Remove drainage tube as soon as practicable and 
secure healing by granulation. Old lacerated wounds may be scari- 
fied, disinfected and sutured (healing by third intention), and if 
this does not succeed, daily dressing and healing should be followed 
by granulation and cicatrization. 

Give the care and treatment of a deep lacerated wound of the coronet. 

See answer to preceding question. 

Avoid excessive pressure in bandaging as it favors necrosis in 
the region of the coronet. If the coronary band is much swollen, the 
horn should be rasped away over an area corresponding to the 
swelling. Horn formation should be discouraged until all swelling 
disappears. Keep horn soft with .5 per cent, caustic potash solution 
until the inflammatory swelling disappears. Irregular cicatrization 
should be similarly treated. If abnormal growths of horn occur, 
they should be rasped down. 

Mention the domestic animals in the order of their susceptibility to 
suppuration. 
From most susceptible to the least, as follows : horse, ox, sheep, 
eat, dog, pig, fowls. 
Give the method of arresting hemorrhage after castration in the colt. 

Cold irrigation, compression with tampons or ligation may be 
employed. Generally, the preference is given to compression with 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 209 

tampons, which are held in place by heavy tape sutures for 24 hours 
and then removed. 

Define (a) abscess, (b) cold abscess. Give treatment for each. 

(a) A localized collection of pus in a cavity formed by the dis- 
integration of tissues. Treatment: incision and antiseptic irri- 
gation. 

(b) An abscess of slow development, with little evidence of 
inflammation. Often have a thick, fibrous, connective-tissue capsule. 
Treatment : Extirpate the capsule, irrigate with antiseptic solution, 
suture and drain. 

Define (a) septicaemia, (b) pyaemia, (c) phlegmon. 

(a) A septic intoxication caused by the presence of bacteria and 
their toxic products in the blood. 

(b) A general wound infection disease characterized by the 
presence of pyogenic germs in the blood and the formation of sup- 
purative foci of disease in the body. (A septicaemia plus metastatic 
abscess formation.) 

(c) An infectious, serous or suppurative inflammation of the 
connective tissue and all its parts, viz., the subcutaneous, subfascial, 
intermuscular, periosteal, tendovaginal and interglandular connec- 
tive tissue. 

What precautions should be taken in case an animal has been bitten 
by a rabid animal? 
Cauterize the wounds ; excise the wounded tissue if possible, and 
use strong disinfectant. (Pasteur treatment and quarantine.) 

Inflammation 
Define inflammation. 

Inflammation is tissue reaction to injury, characterized by pain, 
heat, redness and swelling ; and, histologically, by hypergemia, blood 
stasis, changes in the blood- and vessel-walls, and exudation. 

Name the four cardinal symptoms of inflammation. 

1, dolor (pain) ; 2, calor (heat) ; 3, rubror (redness) ; 4, tumor 
(swelling). 

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of inflammation. 

Causes : Mechanical, thermic and chemical irritants, and micro- 
organisms. 

Symptoms: Heat, redness, swelling, tenderness and disturbed 
function. 
14 



210 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Treatment: Rest, heat, cold, massage, counter-irritation, astrin- 
gents, antiseptics and operation (amputation, incision, scarification). 

Give a classification of inflammation. 

According to the character of the exudate : 1, serous ; 2, fibrin- 
ous, or croupous ; 3, suppurative ; 4, diphtheritic ; 5, hemorrhagic ; 6, 
necrotic or gangrenous ; 7, productive or proliferative ; 8, specific 
(tuberculosis, glanders, actinomycosis, strangles, anthrax, etc.). 

Describe the inflammatory appearances of the blood. 

The white corpuscles are arranged next to the vessel- wall, while 
the red blood-corpuscles occupy the centre of the stream. The white 
cells are seen passing through the walls of the vessels. A transu- 
dation of serum also occurs. In purulent inflammation, leucocytosis 
occurs. 

What are the terminations of inflammations? 

1, Resolution; 2, new formations in the form of thickenings, 
indurations and adhesions; 3, gangrene and septic infection. 

Name five antiphlogistic remedies. 

Heat, cold, counter-irritants, massage and antiseptics. 

State the indications for heat and for cold in the treatment of inflam- 
mation. 
Heat is indicated in all aseptic forms, especially subacute and 
chronic. It is also used in septic forms to hasten the '' ripening '* 
of abscesses. 

Cold is indicated in septic, as well as in the first stages of acute 
and very painful inflammations. 

Describe the condition known as " lampas." 

A congestion of the hard palate, just posterior to the incisors, 
often seen in young animals during the eruption of teeth. Rarely 
occurs in mature animals or requires interference. (Often referred 
to as **a disease of the stableman's mind.") 

Ulcee, Fistula and Gangrene 

Define (a) fistula, (b) ulcer. 

(a) A deep, sinuous ulcer, often leading to an internal hollow 
organ. 

(b) An open sore other than a wound, characterized by a loss 
of substance on a cutaneous or mucous surface and a gradual disin- 
tegration and necrosis of the tissues. *'A wound that has no 
tendency to heal. ' ' 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 211 

Give the causes and treatment of ulcer. 

Causes: Continuous inflammatory irritation, foreign bodies, 
necrosed bone, cartilage and teeth ; constant licking, shaking of ears 
and tail; specific causes, as tuberculosis, glanders, actinomycosis, 
etc. ; microorganisms. 

Treatment : Remove cause ; extirpate, curette, fire with hot iron, 
or use chemical cauterizing agents. Internally, potassium iodide is 
a specific for actinomycosis ; glanders ulcers are not treated. 

Name ten important fistulae in domestic animals. 

1. Fistula of lateral cartilages (Quitter). 

2. Tooth fistula. 

3. Bone fistula. 

4. Fistula of the spermatic cord following castration. 

5. Fistulous withers and poll evil. 

6. Milk fistula. 

7. Salivary fistula. 

8. Ear fistula in the horse (teratomata). 

9. OEsophageal fistula. 
10. Vaginorectal fistula. 

Define gangrene. Name the different kinds and give treatment. 

Gangrene is defined as the death of tissue, due either to direct 
destruction of a part by burns, etc., to interference with the circu- 
lation, or to insufficient blood-supply. 

Kinds : Dry and moist ; hot and cold ; putrid ; circumscribed and 
progressive; septic and aseptic; emphysematous; coagulation- 
necrosis. 

Treatment: Operative removal of the dead part; amputate a 
whole organ or part if necessary ; thorough disinfection. 

Tumors 

Define tumor. Give a classification of tumors. 

A tumor is a mass of new tissue which persists and grows inde- 
pendently of its surrounding structures, and which has no physio- 
logical use. 

Clinical classification : malignant and non-malignant or benign. 

Differentiate malignant tumors and non-malignant tumors. 

Malignant tumors develop rapidly with a destruction of neigh- 
boring tissues, have a tendency toward ulcerative degenerations, 
and are especially distinguished for the formation of metastases 
and the production of cachexia. 



212 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Non-malignant tumors have a central growth, push the tissues 
aside and are usually encapsulated. They do not spread by metas- 
tasis and are only harmful when by reason of size or location they 
interfere with the body functions. 

Give the prognosis and the treatment of epithelioma of the tongue. 

Prognosis : Favorable if situated on the anterior extremity. If 
on the base, it is best to slaughter. 

Treatment. Amputate all of the diseased part and treat the 
wound antiseptically. 

CONCREMENTS 

What is a calculus? Name the different varieties of calculi and state 
where each variety is found. 
A calculus is an abnormal concretion occurring within the ani- 
mal body and usually composed of mineral salts. 

1. Urinary: Found in the kidney (renal), in the bladder 
(cystic), and in the urethra (urethral). 

2. Intestinal : Found in the large intestines and rectum. 

3. Salivary : Found in Steno ^s duct. 

4. Chondroids, or arthritic calculi : Found in joints and tendon- 
sheaths, mucous bursas, and in the guttural pouches. 

5. Milk : Found in the milk-cisterns and teats. 

6. Preputial : Found in the preputial sac of the horse, commonly 
called *^ bean.'* 

Hernia and Prolapse 

Pefine (a) hernia, (b) prolapse. 

(a) The passage of viscera from body-cavities without an injury 
to the skin or mucous membrane ; the viscera protrude through an 
abnormal opening. 

(b) The free passage of viscera through natural or artificial 
body-openings without a covering of the skin or mucous membrane. 

Classify hernia according to (a) condition, (b) situation. 

(a) Reducible and irreducible. 

(b) Umbilical, inguinal, scrotal, ventral, femoral, perineal, rec- 
tal, vaginal, diaphragmatic, and hernia of the flank. 

Bones 

Define (a) ostitis, (b) periostitis, (c) osteomyelitis. 

(a) Inflammation of a bone, especially of the Haversian spaces, 
canals, and their branches. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 213 

(b) Inflammation of the covering of a bone. 

(c) Inflammation of the bone-marrow or bone and marrow. 

Give cause, symptoms and treatment of aseptic periostitis. 

Caused by traumatisms acting subcutaneously, such as kicks, 
blows, treads, and pressure on the interdental space. 

Symptoms : Pain on palpation, lameness, swelling and heat. 

Treatment: Moist warmth, massage, absorbing agents as cam- 
phor, iodine ointment or mercurial ointment. 

What is caries? 

A liquefaction necrosis of bone or teeth in which they become 
softened, discolored and porous. There is usually associated with it 
a chronic inflammation of the periosteum and surrounding tissues, 
and an abscess formation which burrows through the soft parts 
until it opens externally by a sinus or fistula. 

Define fracture. Give the varieties of fracture. 

A fracture is a break or division of the continuity of a bone. 

Varieties : Simple and compound ; complete and incomplete (fis- 
sure and green-stick) ; transverse, oblique and longitudinal; simple 
and multiple (comminuted). 

Define (a) simple fracture, (b) compound, and (c) comminuted frac- 
ture. 

(a) A fracture of a bone without injury to the skin. 

(b) A fracture of a bone accompanied by a skin wound, so that 
the bone is exposed and entrance of infection is possible. 

(c) A fracture of a bone in which the bone is broken into small 
fragments. 

Describe the modes of union of fractures. 

Regeneration of the periosteum and, to a certain extent, of the 
bone-marrow occurs and a granulation tissue is formed, which subse- 
quently ossifies. 

What pathologic conditions render bones liable to fracture? 

An abnormal fragility due to senility, rarefying ostitis, osteo- 
malacia, rachitis, caries, sarcoma and tuberculosis of bone. Diseases 
of the nervous system, as seen following neurotomy (trophoneurotic 
bone atrophy) ; anchylosis which restricts the mobility of the joints. 

Describe a method of applying a plaster-of-Paris dressing for fixation 
in case of fracture. 
After reposition of the broken ends of the bone is effected, the 
limb is covered with a pad of cotton, over which a flannel bandage 




214 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

is applied. Over this, the plaster-of-Paris bandages are placed. 
These bandages are prepared by dusting with fresh plaster and 
soaking for a short time in warm water. After a sufficient number 
of plaster bandages have been applied, the outside may be strength- 
ened by applying some of the plaster made into a paste. 

Make a diagram of the various methods of firing. 

^^ 



Joints 

Define arthritis. Name the common varieties of arthritis. 

Arthritis is an inflammation of a joint. 

1, serous ; 2, suppurative ; 3, deforming ; 4, tubercular. 

Define (a) anchylosis, (b) corpora libra, (c) arthritis, (d) periarthritis, 
(e) synovitis. 

(a) Abnormal immobility and consolidation of a joint. 

(b) A free body of organic structure occurring pathologically 
in joints. 

(c) Inflammation of a joint. 

(d) Inflammation of the tissues around a joint. 

(e) Inflammation of a synovial membrane. 

Give the treatment of an open joint. 

In case of a fresh wound, do not probe but irrigate the opening 
with the mildest non-irritating antiseptic, or physiologic salt solu- 
tion, suture, and apply iodoform gauze and bandage. Cauterization 
of punctured openings is often beneficial. Seal with collodion after 
thoroughly disinfecting as described above. Suppurating wounds 
should be drained, irrigated and packed with antiseptic gauze. 
Such wounds are usually incurable. The swelling produced by 
blistering is often employed to close wounds around joints. 

Define false joint. At what points is a false joint most likely to occur? 
A false joint is a permanent movable union between pieces of 
bone which occurs when callus formation fails to produce firm union 
between the fragments. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 215 

Occurs most commonly between the head of the femur and the 
OS innominata, following fracture of the rim of the cotyloid cavity. 
Also occurs on the first phalanx, and on the posterior false ribs. 

Define luxation. Give causes of luxation. 

Luxation is the displacement of the articular surfaces of one 
or more bones of a joint from their normal relation to each other. 

Causes: Traumatism, pathological changes (alterations of the 
joint from disease, or paralysis of the surrounding muscles), and 
congenital malformations. 

Tendons and Tendon-sheaths 

Give the causes and the treatment of tendinitis. 

Strains, overextensions, and partial ruptures. Predisposing 
causes: Too long and too weak fetlocks, low heels and long toes, 
abnormal positions, enforced standing. Occurs secondary to infec- 
tious diseases (contagious pleuropneumonia). 

Treatment : Rest. In acute conditions, cold irrigation and cold 
compresses; slight massage and a pressure bandage; shorten the 
toe and shoe with high heel calks and no toe calk. Chronic cases 
need warmth, blistering and sometimes firing, in addition to rest 
and special shoe. 

What are the causes of tendon rupture? 

Partial rupture occurs in strains. Complete rupture is caused 
by traumatisms, overexertion and overstretching, especially when 
predisposed by suppurative inflammation, necrosis, contagious 
pleuropneumonia, osteomalacia or continued standing on three feet. 

Give causes, symptoms and treatment of tendovaginitis. 

Causes: Traumatisms, infectious diseases (contagious pleuro- 
pneumonia, septicaemia, articular rheumatism, contagious abortion, 
etc.), cold, infection through wounds. 

Symptoms: Lameness, more or less pain and local heat; soft, 
fluctuating or crepitating swelling in the region of affected tendon- 
sheath. In infected forms, abscess formation may appear, accom- 
panied by fever. Chronic cases show thickening and adhesions of 
the tendon-sheaths. 

Treatment: Rest. Moist warmth, pressure bandage. Long- 
standing cases require mild blisters, or iodine applications. Severe 
chronic cases may be benefited by firing. Infected cases should be 
treated with antiseptics. Supply free drainage for pus if present, 
not hesitating to open the sheath its full length if deemed necessary. 



216 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

What are so-called " wind galls " ? State their cause. 

An accumulation of a serous fluid in a dilated tendon-sheath, 
non-inflammatory and painless. Occur most frequently in the re- 
gion of the fetlock. Caused hy chronic serous tendovaginitis, result- 
ing from continued, severe exertions. Occasionally seen following 
contagious pleuropneumonia. 

Write a prescription for a blister for bowed tendons. 

Hydrargyri biniodidi Sij 

Pulv. cantharides Sij 

01. adipis §ij 

Misce. 

Sig. — Apply witli friction to affected tendons. 

Muscles and Nerves 

Define myositis. Give causes and symptoms. 

Myositis is an inflammation of a muscle. 

Causes: Traumatic, infection, cold and parasites. 

Symptoms : Pain, swelling and local heat. Symptoms are local- 
ized in most cases, as contrasted with rheumatism which has a ten- 
dency to shift from place to place and has no definite local boundary. 
Special symptoms, such as lameness, corresponding to the part 
affected. 

Give results of neurotomy when unfavorable. 

Fractures, due to neurotrophic atrophy; necrosis of extremity 
following infected wounds ; neuroma forming on end of cut nerve ; 
regeneration and restored function. 

Give the differential symptoms of paralysis originating in the brain, 
cord and periphery. 
Brain: Monoplegia or hemiplegia; one or more cranial nerves 
often involved; more or less loss of consciousness. 

Cord : Paraplegia more common ; psychic derangements absent ; 
cranial nerves unaffected; bladder and rectum simultaneously 
paralyzed. 

Periphery : Single muscles or groups of muscles affected without 
cerebral or spinal complications. 

What is " Sweeney " ? What treatment is indicated ? 

''Sweeney" is the term applied by horsemen to the atrophy of 
the spinati muscles which follows paralysis of the suprascapular 
nerve. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 217 

It is frequently incurable. Massage, counter-irritants, subcu- 
taneous injections of veratrin, turpentine and Lugol 's solution have 
been used with more or less beneficial results. 

Diseases of Blood-vessels 

Define aneurism. Give the varieties of aneurism. 

An aneurism is a sac formed by the dilatation of the walls of an 
artery and filled with blood. 

Tnie aneurism is one in which the sac is formed by the coats of 
the arterial walls, one of which, at least, is unbroken. 

False aneurism is one in which all of the coats of the artery are 
ruptured and the blood is retained by the surrounding tissues. 

Define and give causes of (a) arteritis, (b) phlebitis. 

(a) Inflammation of an artery. 

(b) Inflammation of a vein. 

Causes: Traumatisms, infection, parasites, phlebotomy, emboli 
and intravenous medication. 

Define lymphangitis. Give causes, symptoms and treatment. 

Inflammation of lymphatic vessels. Usually follows wound in- 
fection, due to the entrance of pus-producing organisms into the 
open lymphatic vessels. Specific infections, as saccharomyces farci- 
minosis, sporothrix, etc. 

Symptoms: Lymph-vessels stand out prominently as cord-like 
swellings, interrupted by nodules (the valves) ; lymph-glands in 
the affected region usually enlarged. Abscess formation along the 
course of the vessels, at the seat of valves. Chronic cases show great 
thickening of the skin and subcutaneous connective tissue. 

Treatment: Cold irrigation. Open abscesses and give free 
drainage to wounds. Use antiseptics freely. Hot fomentations 
may be useful in long-standing cases. Internal administration of 
potassium iodide in specific infections, sporothricosis, epizootic 
lymphangitis. 

Eye, Ear and Throat 

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of acute catarrhal conjunc- 
tivitis. 
Causes : Cold, traumatisms, foreign bodies, strong gases, smoke, 
infection, accompanies certain infectious diseases, influenza, dog 
distemper, etc. 

Symptoms: Redness, lachrymation, discharge of mucopurulent, 
or simply watery, nature. Swelling and closure of the lids which are 



218 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

usually covered with crusts and stuck together in the morning. In 
protracted cases, ulcers form on the cornea. 

Treatment : Remove foreign bodies ; a few drops of a 4 per cent, 
boric acid solution in the eye several times daily, or a 1 per cent, 
silver nitrate solution may be used. Keep the eye covered with a 
pad soaked in boric acid solution, which not only serves an antiseptic 
and astringent purpose but rests the eye by occluding the light. 

Describe amaurosis and give its causes and treatment. 

Amaurosis is blindness, especially blindness occurring without 
any apparent lesion of the eye, and due to disease of the optic nerve, 
retina, spine or brain. 

Causes: Renal disease, diabetes, uraemia, cerebral diseases, 
reflexly from remote irritation, congenital. 

Treatment: Unsatisfactory. May disappear on subsidence of 
the causative factor. Eliminate the cause if it can be determined. 

Give fully the symptoms, prognosis and treatment in a severe case of 
periodic ophthalmia. 

Symptoms: Local heat and tenderness, lachrymation, photo- 
phobia, arborescent appearance of the injected capillaries extending 
from the sclera down in the cornea, fibrinopurulent exudation in 
the anterior chamber, iridocyclochoroiditis present. Course, about 
two weeks. Patient may be blind in one eye and show synechise in 
the other from previous attacks. Atrophy of the globe after two 
or more attacks. 

Prognosis: Unfavorable. Usually recover from one attack but 
several subsequent attacks, at intervals of one to six months, are 
inevitable and blindness is sure to result. 

Treatment: Rest the eye with atropine. Boric acid, cocaine 
hydrochlorate and atropine sulphate make a useful combination. 
Keep patient in darkened room. Cover the eye with a pad soaked 
in boric acid solution. The use of counter-irritants, blisters and 
setons, so commonly employed, inflict useless pain. The disease 
usually runs a two weeks' course in spite of any treatment. 

Define (a) entropion, (b) ectropion, (c) glaucoma, (d) staphyloma. 

(a) Inversion of the eyelid, (b) E version or turning out of the 
eyelid, (c) A disease of the eye marked by intense intra-ocular 
pressure resulting in hardness of the eye, atrophy of the optic disk 
and blindness. It is due to obstruction of the lymph circulation, 
(d) A protrusion of the cornea or sclera resulting from inflam- 
mation. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 219 

What animals suffer from contagious ophthalmia? Give the diagnosis 
and treatment of contagious ophthalmia. 
Seen principally in cattle. Several cattle in the herd show 
lachrymation, photophobia, mucopurulent discharge, swelling and 
tenderness of the lids, fibrinopurulent exudate in the anterior cham- 
ber. In some mild cases, only a conjunctivitis is seen. 

Treatment : Eyewash of boric acid solution (4 per cent.) to which 
may be added 1 per cent, of atropine sulphate. Protect the eyes 
from all bright light. Segregate affected animals. 

Define cataract. Name the different forms of cataract and give the 
diagnosis. 

A cataract is any pathological change in the lens or its capsule 
which diminishes its transparency. 

Varieties: Congenital, senile, soft, hard, incipient, mature, pri- 
mary, secondary, capsular, lenticular, stationary, progressive, 
traumatic, etc. 

Diagnosis: History of previous attacks of periodic ophthalmia, 
or simple ophthalmia; atrophy of the globe; dilate the pupil with 
atropia and illuminate the depth of the eye with the ophthalmoscope 
when opacities will be more readily detected. Hold a lighted candle 
before the eye; in the normal eye, three images are reflected, one 
from the cornea, one from the anterior capsule of the lens and one 
from the posterior capsule. Any opacities in the lens will cause the 
posterior image to become indistinct as it passes over that spot. 

What conditions may give rise to cataract? 

Impaired nutrition of lens, inflammation of the iris, choroid, 
ciliary body and retina, periodic ophthalmia, diabetes, cell prolifera- 
tion in the lens. 

Give the treatment of lachrymal fistula. 

Establish drainage through the lachrymal duct by forcing boric 
acid solution through it from below upward under slight pressure. 
Curette the fistulous opening and cauterize with silver nitrate. 

Describe an operation for enucleation of the eye. 

General anaesthesia is essential. Wash and disinfect the eye and 
surrounding parts. Retract the lids ; make the incision through the 
conjunctiva around the corneal margin and dissect back the con- 
junctiva to the insertion of muscles. With small curved scissors 
cut the muscles near their tendinous insertion. Then with strong 
curved scissors, cut the optic nerve with one snip. The eye can 
then be pried out. Check hemorrhage by packing the cavity with 
aseptic gauze for a few hours. 



220 VETEEINARY STATE BOARD 

Describe otorrhoea of the dog. Give treatment. 

An inflammatory condition of the external auditory meatus. It 
is characterized by a discharge of a yellowish-brown secretion, 
usually mixed with pus, pruritus and shaking of the ears. 

Treatment: Cleanse with peroxide of hydrogen, probe and 
cotton. Dry with ether and keep dry by dusting lycopodium over 
the affected parts. Repeat the treatment daily. 

Mention two common causes of deafness in the dog. 

Congenital deafness is occasionally met with; in old age, dogs 
become more or less deaf; otitis media, inflammation of the middle 
ear, is generally followed by deafness. 

Give the symptoms and the diagnosis of pus in the guttural pouches. 
Intermittent, unilateral or bilateral, nasal discharge. Appears 
in considerable quantity at times and then entirely disappears. The 
discharge is increased when the head is lowered after being checked 
up, when eating off the floor, swallowing and when pressure is 
applied over the pouch. Swelling may or may not be marked. 
Dyspnoea is sometimes produced by the pressure on the larynx. 
Similarly, difficulty in swallowing may be present. Diagnosis can 
be confirmed by passing the Eustachian catheter. 

Describe the Viborg or the Chabert method of opening the guttural 
pouch. 

Viborg 's method: Secure the patient in lateral decubitus with 
the head extended. General anaesthesia is advisable. Locate 
Viborg 's triangle (the space between the posterior border of the 
inferior maxilla, the terminal tendon of the sternomaxillaris muscle 
and the external maxillary vein). Shave and disinfect this area. 
Draw the skin tense and make an incision, 5 cm. long, through the 
skin and skin muscle immediately beneath and parallel to the tendon 
aforementioned. Force a passage with the finger or blunt instru- 
ment through the loose connective tissue to the guttural pouch. 

In Chahert's method, the incision (6 cm. long) is made about 
1 cm. in front of the lower half of the wing of the atlas and parallel 
thereto. The parotid gland is drawn forward and an incision 
is made parallel to and through the fibres of the stylomaxillaris 
muscle thus exposed. This leads directly into the guttural pouch. 

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of postpharyngeal abscess. 

Causes: Injuries to the pharyngeal walls; inflammation of 

same or neighboring tissues; infection following injury by sharp 

objects, balling gun, etc. Infection extending from suppurative 

parotitis to the subparotid lymph-glands. Often seen in strangles. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 221 

Symptoms: Swelling, dyspnoea and dysphagia from pressure; 
head extended; slight fever. 

Treatment : Open through Viborg 's triangle as described in pre- 
ceding answer. In case of subparotid abscess, use a blunt instru- 
ment or finger to burrow through the parotid gland. Some operators 
prefer to make the incision on the median line and dissect through 
to the abscess along the lateral wall of the larynx. In all cases, 
good drainage and thorough disinfection are necessary. Use trache- 
otomy tube to avoid suffocation which may follow the excitement 
caused by operating. 

Give the treatment of pharyngeal polypi. 

Adjust the mouth speculum and attempt grasping and removing 
the polypi with the hand introduced through the mouth. If this 
method fails, perform laryngectomy, pass hand or ecraseur through 
the larynx into the pharynx and remove the growth, preferably 
by torsion. If this fails, cut the growth away with scissors or 
scalpel. 

Give the treatment for choking. 

Four methods may be employed. 

1. Return the foreign body into the pharynx by manipulations 
over the oesophageal furrow and with the hand in the pharynx, 
or with extracting instruments; emetics such as apomorphine and 
veratrine may assist. 

2. Reduce the size of the foreign body in situ (soft objects may 
be crushed by hand). 

3. Force the foreign body onward into the stomach with the 
probang. Great caution should be observed in case of sharp objects 
as bones, etc. Likewise, a mass of oats may be more firmly impacted. 

4. CEsophagotomy. This can only be performed on the cervical 
portion of the oesophagus and is only practised when the other 
methods fail. 

Unless symptoms are alarming, it is best to avoid all treatment 
in case of impaction of oats, as such cases often remedy themselves 
in the course of a few days. In all cases, withhold food and water 
until the condition is relieved to avoid the danger of inhalation 
pneumonia. 

Describe oesophagotomy. 

The animal can be operated upon in the standing or recumbent 
position. The point of operation is usually determined by the 
location of the foreign body which necessitates the operation. Shave 
and disinfect the skin. Make an incision 10 cm. long through the 



222 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

skin and skin muscle on the left side between the anterior border 
of the mastoidohumeralis muscle and the jugular vein. Separate 
the loose connective tissue with the fingers down to the oesophagus 
which lies between the left scalenus muscle, the trachea and the jugu- 
lar vein. Draw the oesophagus out through the wound and make 
a longitudinal incision in it, sufficiently large for the removal of the 
foreign body. The wound in the oesophagus is closed by an intes- 
tinal suture, i.e., the external coats are drawn together (Lembert 
suture). The external wound may be left open, or sutured, and a 
drainage tube inserted. 

Describe the treatment of choking in the cow. 

See answer to the two preceding questions. Choking in cattle is 
often accompanied by bloating (tympanites). This should be re- 
lieved by puncturing the rumen and leaving the canula in position 
until relief is obtained, several days if necessary. 

Give the diagnostic symptoms of roaring. Describe an operation for 
roaring. 

Symptoms : Inspiratory dyspnoea, very marked after severe exer- 
tion, galloping or heavy pulling without any visible cause. Posi- 
tive diagnosis is made by examining the larynx with the laryngoscope 
or by introducing a finger through an opening made in the larynx 
(laryngotomy). In case of roaring, the left vocal cord lies motion- 
less in the lumen of the larynx. Sometimes both sides are paralyzed. 

Operation: Secure the animal in lateral recumbency. Shave 
a large area in the laryngeal region, disinfect thoroughly. Chloro- 
form anaesthesia is necessary. When anaesthesia is complete, roll 
the patient upon its back with the head extended. Make a longi- 
tudinal incision, 15 cm. long, through the skin, subeutem and muscles 
, on the median line directly over the larynx. Continue the incision 
through the cricothyroidean ligament and cricoid cartilage. Con- 
trol hemorrhage with haemostatic forceps. Insert retractors and 
carefully dissect out the mucous lining of the lateral ventricle be- 
tween the vocal cord and the arytenoid cartilage on the affected side. 
This must be carefully done because any remaining portion of this 
mucous membrane will secrete mucus and form a mucous cyst. 
The object is to grow the vocal cord to the wall of the larynx and 
this is accomplished by denuding the opposing surfaces of their 
raucous membrane. The after-treatment consists of daily cleansing 
of the external wound and complete rest for six weeks. The patient 
should be carefully watched for the first 48 hours to see that 
dyspnoea is not provoked by the swelling in the region of the wound. 
In such cases, a tracheotomy tube should be inserted in the opening. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 223 

Head and Neck 

Define (a) gleet, (b) epistaxis. 

(a) Chronic nasal catarrh characterized by a thick, purulent 
discharge, ulcers in the nasal cavity, bulging of the sinuses and 
enlargement of the submaxillary lymph-glands. 

(b) Bleeding from the nose. 

Give the causes and the treatment of bleeding from the nose. 

Causes: Traumatisms, diseases of the mucous membrane as in 
glanders, gleet, etc., tumor formation, fracture of nasal bones, severe 
exertion. 

Treatment: Remove cause, irrigate the nasal cavity with cold 
water to which may be added some astringent agents, as tannin, 
aluminum sulphate, zinc sulphate, etc. Spray the cavity with adre- 
nalin chloride. Plug the nostrils with cotton and keep the head 
elevated. Slight, and often severe, hemorrhage will often stop with- 
out any measures being employed for its control. 

What diseases of the facial sinuses require surgical interference? 

Empygemia, diseased teeth, tumors and foreign bodies, necrosis 
of the bony and cartilaginous walls. 

Give the surgical technic of trephining the frontal sinuses. 

Operate on the standing animal with the aid of local anaesthesia. 
Shave and disinfect the region of the frontal bone on a level with 
the superior border of the orbital cavity and about 1 cm. from the 
median line of the face. Make a circular incision of the desired 
size through the skin, subcutem and periosteum, and remove the 
encircled mass by separating the periosteum from the bone with 
the scalpel. Place the trephine perpendicular to the bone and drill 
until the centre bony plate loosens, then pry out the disc of bone. 

Give the treatment of pus in the nasal sinuses. 

The trephining is carried out in the manner described in the 
preceding answer. The point of operation may be at any point, 
immediately against the median line from the level of the upper limit 
of the superior maxillary sinus to the upper extremity of the false 
nostril. Great care must be taken to avoid trephining too deeply 
and injuring the turbinated bones which lie close to the nasal bone. 
Dilute solutions of hydrogen peroxide can now be injected and 
followed by a thorough irrigation with sterile water. This irrigation 
should be repeated daily until suppuration ceases. 

Give the symptoms and the treatment of nasal polypus. 

Symptoms : Stenosis of the nasal passages, dyspnoea, chronic uni- 
lateral catarrh ; in ulcerative degeneration, an ichorous, fetid, occa- 



224 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

sionally hemorrhagic, nasal discharge with unilateral swelling of 
the submaxillary lymph-gland is seen. Polypi may be long enough 
to protrude or be seen in the nostril. 

Treatment : Operative removal with scalpel, scissors or ecraseur. 

What are the diseases for which tracheotomy are performed? De- 
scribe the operation. 

Dyspnoea due to obstructions in the upper air passages from 
roaring, tumors or other swellings in the nasal passages, larynx, 
upper part of the trachea, etc., foreign bodies in the trachea, diseases 
of the larynx, trachea and bronchi which demand intratracheal 
irrigation or other treatment. 

Operation : Shave and disinfect the skin over the trachea in the 
superior third of the neck. Operate on the standing animal, using 
twitch. Make an incision, 6 to 8 cm. long, on the median line, 
through the skin and between the two sternothyroideus muscles 
down on to the trachea. Remove a semicircular piece from each of 
. two adjoining rings (avoid complete severance of the rings). In 
an emergency, requiring great haste, two or three rings may be in- 
cised but the former method is to be preferred because of the lesser 
liability of stenosis following healing. 

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of paralysis of the lips. 

Causes: Injury to the facial nerve where it passes over the 
posterior border of the lower jaw. Tumors, pressing on the nerve, 
may produce paralysis. Some paralyses are of central origin, i.e., 
due to cerebral lesions. 

Symptoms : Lips are distorted to one side in unilateral paralysis, 
and hang flaccid in bilateral condition. Difficulty in prehension 
of food is noted. The lips and cheeks are injured by the teeth. In 
paralysis of central origin, the upper eyelid droops and the ear 
hangs limp. 

Treatment : Remove accumulated food from the cheeks after each 
meal. Give easily masticated food. A blister may be applied over 
the point where the nerve emerges on the upper margin of the lower 
maxilla, but its value is questionable. Most cases of peripheral 
paralyses recover in 4 to 6 weeks. 

Describe caries of the teeth and give treatment. 

Caries of the teeth is the term used to describe the process which 
results in the gradual destruction of the cement and dentin, the 
enamel remaining comparatively intact. Caries is caused by the 
entrance of microorganisms through small openings in the enamel. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 225 

Fermentation occurs and acids are formed which attack the tooth 
structure. 

Treatment : Extraction of the affected tooth. It may be neces- 
sary to trephine and punch the tooth out. 

Give the causes and the treatment of stomatitis. 

Causes: Wounds from sharp teeth, the bit and foreign bodies; 
infection, chemicals and hot foods. 

Treatment : Remove the cause ; file off sharp enamel points ; use 
an astringent, antiseptic mouth wash; cauterize ulcers with lunar 
caustic or paint with tincture of iodine. Provide plenty of fresh 
water; cleanse the mouth after each meal. 

Describe the appearance of a horse's mouth at the age of (a) two 
years, (b) three years, (c) five years. 

(a) The inferior dental arch is levelled at the nippers and 
intermediate milk-teeth. The superior nippers stand out from the 
gums and behind them is found a moderately sensitive swelling which 
is due to the pressure of the permanent teeth on the gums of the 
palatine arch. 

(b) The permanent nippers, above and below, are level with the 
temporary intermediates and corner teeth. 

(c) The mouth is complete, ** full-mouth, ' ' i.e., all the per- 
manent teeth have reached the same level. The anterior borders of 
the corners are in wear but the posterior borders are not. 

Describe the appearance of the mouth of a horse at the age of (a) seven 
years, (b) eight years, (c) fourteen years. 

(a) Notch on the posterior border of the superior corner teeth. 
The nippers are oval in shape and the intermediates are becoming 
so. The cups are worn out of the inferior nippers and nearly out of 
the intermediates. 

(b) The intermediates are oval and show a triangular-shaped 
central enamel. The corners are worn and show their central enamel 
somewhat concave. The cups are nearly worn out of the inferior 
corners. 

(c) The nippers are becoming triangular. The intermediates 
and corners remain rounded. The transverse arch of the teeth 
becomes narrower. 

Describe the appearance of the mouth of the horse at the age of (a) 

six years, (b) ten years, (c) tv^relve years, (d) fifteen years. 

(a) The nippers are worn and the cups of the inferior pair are 

worn out. The intermediates are becoming worn and the corners 

are on a level with them, showing their anterior borders worn down. 

15 



226 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

(b) The nippers are rounded, the intermediates are nearly so, 
while the corners are still oval. The cups are worn out of all the 
inferiors and the nippers and intermediates of the superior row. 

(c) All the teeth are rounded and the central enamel is gone. 
The superior corners are levelled. 

(d) The nippers are triangular, the intermediates are becoming 
SO; the corners are still rounded. The dental star is round in all 
the lower teeth and is dark and indistinct. 

Describe the operation for the repulsion of a diseased upper molar 
tooth of a horse. 
Shave and disinfect the field of operation. Remove a circular 
piece of skin and trephine through the bone and alveolar plate, 
immediately over the fang of the tooth. With scalpel and chisel, 
separate the bone and soft tissues over the entire area of the diseased 
tooth. Apply a punch against the fang of the tooth and give a few 
sharp blows with a mallet, directing the force in a line with the 
long axis of the tooth, driving it into the mouth. If the tooth cannot 
be dislodged in this manner, comminute it with the chisel and mallet 
and remove the fragments. Cleanse and disinfect the wound after 
each meal, or at least once daily. 

Give the symptoms and the treatment of paralysis of the muscles of 
mastication. 

Symptoms: Salivation, tongue lolling, inability to close the 
mouth and take nourishment. 

Treatment: (Beware of rabies.) Feed with stomach tube. 
Apply electric current to the masseter and temporal muscles. 

Give the method of " bishoping " a horse. 

**Bishoping" is accomplished by drilling or gouging out a cavity 
in the tables of incisor teeth and staining the cavity black with silver 
nitrate or a hot iron. It is a method employed by unscrupulous 
dealers C'gyps") for the purpose of deception in regard to the 
age of a horse. 

Mention four diseases and six accidental conditions, or injuries, that 
are characterized by a copious discharge of saliva. 
Diseases: Pharyngitis, stomatitis, paralysis of lower jaw and 
dental caries. 

Accidents: "Wounds of the cheeks, foreign bodies in the mouth, 
a severe bit, injuries of the tongue, bags of spices attached to the 
bit, and choking. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 227 

Give the treatment of salivary calculi. 

Operative removal through, the buccal cavity to avoid fistulas, if 
possible. If the duct must be opened, make a transverse incision 
which heals more readily than a longitudinal one. Observe strict 
aseptic precautions and obtain healing by first intention if possible. 
Withhold food for two days. 

Describe causes, symptoms and treatment of salivary fistula. 

Causes: Wounds which penetrate the salivary glands or their 
ducts. 

Symptoms: An opening in the gland or duct through which 
there is a continuous flow of saliva, more marked during eating. 
The hair is matted or lost and the pigment of the skin is destroyed by 
the discharge. 

Treatment : Fistulae of the gland sometimes heal without treat- 
ment. Cauterize with silver nitrate or actual cautery. See that 
the opening of the duct into the mouth is free, or provide an arti- 
ficial opening, and then close the fistula with a purse-string suture. 
If this fails, ligate the duct above the fistula and produce a destruc- 
tion of the gland through pressure atrophy. The gland may be 
destroyed by the injection of irritating fluids into it but this method 
is very painful and far from surgical. 

What are the characteristic symptoms of actinomycosis of the jaw 
and face in cattle? Give the treatment. 

A hard, firm swelling which involves the bone. The teeth become 
loosened because of a purulent, alveolar periostitis; mastication is 
painful; the skin becomes thick and adherent; perforation occurs 
and a thick, yellow pus is exuded in which actinomyces may be 
found. 

Treatment : Mild cases, if treated early, respond to the internal 
administration of potassium iodide until signs of iodism appear. 
It is best to dissect away all diseased tissue and, in severe cases, 
slaughter. 

Describe an operation for poll-evil. 

Clip the foretop and mane and shave the crest of the neck over 
the diseased area. Make a longitudinal incision on either side of 
the median line, and about 2 inches from same, from the top of the 
head down to the posterior limit of the disease. These incisions 
should be carried through the skin, subcutem and adipose tissue to 
the ligamentum nuchae. Dissect away all necrotic tissue. Pack the 
wound with antiseptic gauze and hold the packing in place with tem- 
porary, retaining sutures. Remove pack in 48 hours and use dry 
dressings daily. 



228 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Give the prognosis and the treatment of goitre (a) in the dog, (b) in 
the horse. 

(a) Prognosis is not very hopeful if the growth is extensive. 
Treatment is unsatisfactory ; paint with tincture of iodine and give 
potassium iodide, internally. Thyroid extract, internally, is reputed 
to give good results. The cystic form of goitre can he tapped with a 
capillary trocar. 

(b) Prognosis favorable ; seldom causes any inconvenience unless 
very large when dyspnoea may be produced by compression of the 
throat. Treatment, same as in the dog. 

Give treatment of cystic goitre in the dog. 

Withdraw the contents of the cyst by use of the capillary trocar 
and paint the overlying skin with tincture of iodine. 

Give the surgical technic of trifacial neurectomy. 

General anaesthesia. Shave and disinfect an area, 10 cm. square, 
over the infraorbital foramen. Make an incision through the skin, 
subcutem and the levator labii superioris alaque nasii muscle and 
expose the nerve. Begin the incision 1 cm. above the foramen and 
carry it downward directly over the nerve a distance of 5 to 6 cm. 
Pick up the nerve with an aneurism needle and divide it close to the 
foramen. Remove about 3 cm. from the distal end. Suture the 
wound, observing aseptic precautions. 

Mention diseases for which phlebotomy of the jugular vein is per- 
formed. 
Congestion of the brain; diseases which are accompanied by 
plethora such as azoturia, congestion of the lungs, acute laminitis, 
etc. ; toxsemic diseases such as tetanus. 

State the various methods of dehorning cattle. 

Dehorning shears ; sawing off with ordinary saw ; application of 
caustic potash on calves at the point where the horn will erupt will 
prevent the horn from developing. 

Diseases of the Thorax 

Describe the operation for the relief of hydrothorax. 

Shave and disinfect an area, 2 cm. square, in the seventh inter- 
costal space on the left side, immediately above the thoracic vein. 
Draw the skin aside and place the trocar at the anterior border of 
the rib and, with a sharp thrust, drive it into the thoracic cavity. 
Withdraw the stilette and allow the fluid to escape. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 229 

Describe symptoms and treatment of a fractured rib. 

Symptoms: Hurried breathing; crepitation with each respira- 
tory movement ; if the pleura is injured, cough may be present. If 
the skin is broken (compound fracture), fragments of bone may be 
seen. 

Treatment: Complete rest and quiet. In compound fracture, 
remove pieces of bone and dress the wound antiseptically. 

Give treatment for saddle-galls and collar-galls. 

Recent formations may disappear under the application of cold 
and massage, or by painting with tincture of iodine. Chronic 
thickenings and necrotic tissue must be removed with the knife. 

Describe fistula of the withers and give treatment. 

A hot, painful swelling in the region of the withers is seen. 
There may be a discharge of pus through a small opening and the 
lymph-vessels in the region stand out as small cords. There is 
usually necrosis of the skin, subcutem, bursas, fasciag, muscles and 
bones in the affected region. 

Treatment: Operative removal of all necrotic tissue. Provide 
drainage and dress wound daily with antiseptics. 

Give the treatment of a case of fistulous withers of three months' 
standing. 

See answer to preceding question. In a case of three months' 
standing, considerable connective-tissue proliferation will have 
occurred ; this should be removed along with the necrotic tissue. 

Diseases of the Abdomen 

Describe a surgical treatment of acute gastric indigestion. 

Tapping of the stomach: Shave and disinfect an area 2 em. 
square over the point of greatest distention on the left side (usually 
between the thirteenth and fourteenth ribs, about one hand 's breadth 
from the spinal column) . Use a trocar, 8 to 10 inches long, and drive 
it in a vertical direction downward into the stomach. Allow the 
gas to escape. The passing of the stomach tube would be a surgical 
measure to be preferred. 

Give the symptoms of rupture of the diaphragm (diaphragmatic 
hernia). 

Asphyxia from compression of the lungs ; symptoms of strangu- 
lation of the bowels. It is difficult to diagnose. Tapping the intes- 
tines through the thoracic walls and the obtaining of ingesta there- 
from will aid in the diagnosis. 



230 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Describe the operation of rumenotomy in the cow. 

Shave and disinfect the skin in the left flank. Introduce a 
bistoury through the skin, muscles and rumen wall at the point where 
the rumen is usually punctured and make a quick downward 
incision, 4 to 6 inches long. The skin incision should be a little 
longer than that in the wall of the rumen to prevent food from 
entering the peritoneal sac. A piece of cloth may be placed in the 
lower angle of the wound for the same purpose. Close the wound 
in the rumen securely with catgut or silk, using interrupted sutures. 
Suture the abdominal muscles in a similar way and the skin in the 
usual way. Some operators draw the skin to one side before making 
the incision through it so that the openings through the different 
layers do not overlap. 

Give the indications for laparotomy in the cow. 

Foreign bodies in the rumen or intestines. Displacement of 
internal organs. Dystocia, where normal delivery is impossible. 
Gut-tie in the ox. 

Give the symptoms and the treatment of inguinal hernia. 

Symptoms : The hind limbs are moved stiffly, dragging the toes. 
The animal stretches out, shows slight colic and draws up the testicle 
of the affected side. Strangulation of the incarcerated intestines 
may produce violent colicky symptoms. In old-standing cases, the 
testicle is atrophied and flaccid. Rectal examination will aid in the 
diagnosis. 

Treatment: Fast the animal and evacuate the bowels. Place 
the patient on its back, chloroform and replace the hernial contents. 
Apply active friction to the cord to produce a swelling which will 
fill the abdominal ring. (A mild vesicant is often used.) Another 
method is to perform castration by means of clamps and the covered 
operation. The latter method is to be preferred because this defect 
is transmitted to offspring and such animals should not be used for 
breeding ; furthermore, it is a more satisfactory and surer method. 

Describe in detail the surgical method of reduction of an inguinal 
hernia in a stallion without resorting to the castration of 
the same. 
See answer to preceding question. 

Give the treatment of an umbilical hernia, the size of a hen's egg^ in 
a colt one year old. 
Produce an inflammatory swelling of the hernial ring by inject- 
ing into it a weak solution of silver nitrate and apply a truss. A! 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 231 

better method is the radical operation — ^herniotomy and suturing 
of the hernial ring. Fast the animal and evacuate the bowels. 
Chloroform anaesthesia is very desirable and more humane. Place 
the patient on its back, shave and disinfect the operative field. 
Make an incision through the skin, suture the hernial ring with silk 
or chromatized catgut, with or without opening the peritoneal cavity. 
Close the skin wound and apply an antiseptic dressing holding same 
in place with a body bandage. 

Describe a case of rupture of the prepubian ligament. 

This condition occurs most commonly in pregnant mares. It 
appears as an immense hernial swelling on the ventral surface of 
the abdomen, extending from the os pubis forward on the abdomen, 
giving the animal a much distorted appearance. The mammae may 
be drawn anteriorly a distance of 8 to 12 inches from the normal 
location. The patient is usually quiet unless strangulation occurs. 

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of ascites in the dog. 

Causes: Obstruction to the circulation from diffuse induration 
of the liver, emboli, weak heart, etc., kid^iey disease, chronic peri- 
tonitis and tuberculosis. 

Symptoms: An abnormal distention of the abdomen. The 
swelling is of a fluctuating nature and gives a dull percussion 
sound which is bounded above by a horizontal line. No matter what 
attitude is assumed by the animal, this horizontal line remains. 
The patient has a pot-bellied appearance, appears dull and becomes 
dyspnoeic upon slight exertion. Diagnosis can be confirmed by 
passing a trocar into the peritoneal cavity and recovering some of the 
liquid contents. The prognosis is bad. 

Treatment: Remove the cause (heart, liver or kidney diseases). 
This is usually impossible, so that only temporary relief can be 
afforded with palliatives. Saline purgatiyes, diuretics, heart tonics, 
etc., may be useful. Puncturing is often beneficial in relieving 
severe dyspnoea. 

Give the symptoms of intussusception. 

The symptoms are mainly those of obstruction of the bowels such 
as continuous colicky pains, passing of a few fecal balls at first but 
later a cessation of defecation, tympanites, and absence of peri- 
stalsis. A manual examination per rectum may aid in making the 
diagnosis. The pains may subside in about 12 hours to be followed 
by chills and death. 



232 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Describe in detail the procedure of passing a stomach tube. What 
are the indications for the use of this tube? 

Secure the animal in the standing position and restrain by 
placing a twitch on the ear. Lubricate the tube with saliva or 
slippery elm tea. Insert the tube in the floor of the nostril and 
push it gently until the pharynx is reached. Move the tube slowly 
in and out until swallowing movements are observed. When the 
tube passes into the oesophagus, force it gently downward into the 
stomach. By the use of a mouth speculum or mouth gag, the tube 
can be passed through the mouth. 

Indications for use : Gastric tympany or impaction ; poisoning ; 
forced nutrition when the animal cannot swallow, as in tetanus. 

Describe enterocentesis and state when indicated. 

Shave and disinfect an area 2 cm. square, in the right flank, 
equidistant from the last rib, the external angle of the ilium and the 
transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae. Place the trocar 
perpendicular to the skin and with a sharp blow drive it into the 
distended cgecum. Withdraw the stilette and allow the gas to 
escape. 

This operation is indicated in cases of intestinal tympany. It 
is occasionally employed to introduce medicines directly into the 
caecum. 

Name the tissues involved in puncturing the caecum. 
Skin, abdominal muscle, peritoneum and caecum. 

What are some o£ the unsatisfactory results that are likely to follow 
the operation of puncturing the intestines in the horse, and 
describe the technic you would adopt to guard against them? 

1. Peritonitis ; Strict antisepsis. Have the stilette in the canula 
and press the skin firmly against the abdominal muscles when 
withdrawing the instrument. 

2. Abscess at the site of puncture: Same precautionary meas- 
ures as given in preceding paragraph. 

3. Hemorrhage: Operate at the proper point and thus avoid 
large arteries. 

Diseases op the Urinary Organs 

Give the symptoms of urinary calculi in the bladder. What is the 
method of surgical procedure? 
Frequent urination but passing of small amounts. Blood- 
stained urine after exercise on account of injuries of the mucous 
membrane by the stone. Examination per rectum will reveal the 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 233 

stone as a firm, hard substance. In mares, it can be felt by passing 
a finger through the urethra. 

Perform urethrotomy at the ischial notch. Extract the stone 
with lithotomy forceps. If the stone is too large to be removed 
entire, lithotripsy (crushing of the stone within the bladder) must 
be performed, and if this fails, dilate the neck of the bladder with 
the lithotome. In mares, the stone can often be removed through 
the normal urethral opening (cystic calculi are rare in the mare). 

Give causes, symptoms and treatment of paralysis of the bladder in 
the horse and in the dog. 

Causes : Retention of urine, due to calculi, causes overdistention 
and paralysis. Haemoglobinuria, spinal lesions and enlarged 
prostates. 

Symptoms: Urine discharged in small quantities when the de- 
trusor muscle alone is paralyzed. If the sphincter muscle is para- 
lyzed, an involuntary discharge of urine occurs, especially when 
the abdominal muscles are contracted as in defecation. 

Treatment: Unsatisfactory. Catheterize frequently in case of 
great distention due to paralysis of the detrusor muscle. Give tonics 
such as strychnine and arsenic. 

Give the treatment of prolapse of the urinary bladder in the mare. 

Carefully cleanse, disinfect and replace the viscus. Suture the 
wound in the vagina if possible. Prevent straining and recurrence 
by injecting lukewarm water into the replaced bladder (local anaes- 
thetics could be used in the water), and administer sedative. 

Give the cause, symptoms and treatment of rupture of the bladder. 

Causes: Overdistention, injuries by the catheter, calculi, etc. 

Symptoms : Absence of urination ; urinif erous odor to the skin, 
peritonitis and death soon follows. 

Treatment : Useless. Might attempt laparotomy and suture the 
rent in the bladder-wall. Remove the obstruction causing overdis- 
tention and rupture. 

Describe the operation of passing a catheter in (a) the gelding, (b) 
the mare, (c) the cow, (d) the steer. 
(a) Wash and disinfect the external parts. Grasp the penis 
firmly and pass a sterilized catheter, lubricated with carbolized 
vaseline, gently upward until an assistant feels it approaching the 
ischial notch. It is then guided forward into the bladder. If a 
soft-rubber catheter is used, no assistant will be necessary. 



234 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

(b) Wash and disinfect the external genitals. With the fingers 
of one hand, locate the urethral orifice and with the other hand 
direct the catheter into it and force it gently into the bladder. 

(c) Same as the mare. The urethral orifice is a little more diffi- 
cult to locate on account of the overlying folds of mucous membrane. 

(d) Same as in the gelding. Only the forward end of the 
urethra as far as the *^S "-shaped curve can be catheterized. 

Diseases of the Generative Organs 

Describe the operation of castration of the male. What ill effects may 
follow and how can they be prevented ? 

The operation may be performed on the standing animal but is 
safer for the operator if the patient is cast and secured on its back 
or side. Wash and disinfect the scrotum, grasp the testicle, enclosed 
in the scrotum, and hold firmly. Make an incision, 8 to 10 cm. long, 
parallel with and about 2 cm. from the median raphe. Carry the 
incision through the skin, dartos and tunics until the testicle pro- 
trudes through the opening. Grasp the testicle and gently pull it 
out. (By cutting the cremaster muscle, the testicle can be drawn 
out farther and easier.) Place the emasculator close up to the 
external ring and sever the cord. Leave the instrument in place 
for a few minutes to prevent hemorrhage. The wound will usually 
heal without any attention. 

Hemorrhage may occur, but if the emasculator is perfect and 
is left in place for a sufficient length of time, there is little danger. 
Blood-clots may form if the external opening is too small. Wound 
infection can usually be avoided by careful antiseptic preparation. 
Scirrhous cord may result from leaving the cord too long and, 
exposed. 

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of scirrhous cord. 

Causes: Wound infection following castration. May be due to 
a faulty method of castration, leaving the cord too long and exposed. 
Infection leads to a chronic inflammation of the stump of the cord. 

Symptoms: A firm, hard, and slightly painful swelling in the 
region of the scrotum; a fistulous opening, 2 to 4 inches deep, dis- 
charging pus. The swelling may extend along the cord into the 
abdominal cavity. 

Treatment: Remove the diseased part, if external to the abdo- 
men. If it extends into the abdomen, nothing surgical can be done. 
Potassium iodide, internally, may help. 

Name three diseases resulting from castration. 
Scirrhous cord, hydrocele, peritonitis. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 235 

Mention in order from without inward the tissues cut in the operation 
of castration of the male. 
Skin, dartos, spermatic, cremasteric amd inf undibulif orm f ascias ; 
the tunica vaginalis and the tunica albuginea. 

Describe paraphimosis and give treatment. 

A condition in which the glans penis cannot be retracted into the 
prepuce, either because the opening is too narrow, or the glans too 
large. More common in the dog than in the horse, because in the 
latter the outer folds of the sheath are loosely formed and present 
a wide opening. But occasionally the preputial folds become greatly 
swollen and prevent the return of the penis. ]\Iore often the 
condition is due to swelling of the penis. 

Treatment: Attempt replacement by lubricating with oil and 
applying pressure on the swollen penis. It may be necessary to 
incise the preputial ring. Apply astringent packs to combat the 
inflammation. A suspensory bandage will assist in reducing the 
oedema. 

Describe a method of amputating the penis. 

General anaesthesia. Wash and disinfect the penis and preputial 
region. Apply a temporary elastic ligature just above the preputial 
ring. Grasp the penis with one hand and with a circular incision, 
about 5 cm. in front of the ligature, or immediately in front of the 
preputial ring, excise the organ. Ligate vessels which may be 
bleeding. Slit the dorsal wall of the urethra for a distance of about 
2 cm.; spread it fan-like over the surrounding tissues and suture 
to the same. A silk ligature can be applied to the corpus caver- 
nosum just above the point of excision and allowed to remain for a 
few days. Remove the elastic ligature. 

Give cause, symptoms and treatment of paralysis of the penis. 

Cause : Due to paralysis of the retractor penis muscle. Inability 
to retract the penis on account of inflammatory swellings of the 
sheath or penis are erroneously referred to as paralysis. 

Symptoms : Inability to retract the penis in the sheath or retain 
it there when replaced. Insensitiveness of the organ which hangs 
limply and swings to and fro when the animal walks. 

Treatment : Massage the retractor penis muscle between the anus 
and scrotum. Injections of veratrine or strychnine may assist. 
Apply a suspensory bandage to prevent injuries and oedema. Am- 
putation may be necessary as a last resort, or better still, the more 
recent method of removing a band-like piece of skin from the penis 
(by encircling it with two incisions) equal in width to one-half 



236 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

the length of the protruding organ. Suture the edges of the skin. 
Upon healing, the penis will be drawn back nearly in normal position. 

Give the symptoms and the treatment of diseased prostate in. the 
stallion. 

Difficulty in defecation and urination. Straining to urinate 
and passing of a thin stream or only in drops. Rectal examination 
reveals, close behind the bladder, a soft, painful swelling, in acute 
conditions, and a hard and painless swelling in chronic inflammation. 
Abscess formation may fluctuate. 

Treatment: Laxatives and enemas lessen the pressure from the 
rectum. Abscesses may be ruptured into the urethra, or evacuated 
with a trocar through the rectum. Catheterize regularly until the 
condition is relieved. Castration has been recommended. 

Give causes, symptoms and treatment o£ orchitis. 

Causes: Traumatisms; extension from the urinary passages; 
metastatic inflammation is seen in glanders and strangles. 

Symptoms : A hot, painful swelling of the testicles. (Edema of 
the scrotum if periorchitis occurs. Infectious orchitis is accom- 
panied by fever. Hemorrhage may produce a haematocele which is 
very readily absorbed. 

Treatment: A suspensory bandage; astringent packs such as 
Burrow's lotion. Paint with tincture of iodine when the inflam- 
mation subsides. If pus formation occurs, early castration is im- 
perative to prevent extension and a fatal peritonitis. 

Give the symptoms and the treatment of hydrocele. 

Marked swelling of the scrotum, resembling somewhat an in- 
guinal or scrotal hernia, but is soft, elastic, painless and non- 
inflammatory. Differentiated from hernia, by the fact that the 
swelling is confined principally to the lower part of the scrotum 
and tapers away as it approaches the upper part. An exploratory 
needle puncture will decide all doubt if necessary. 

Treatment: Injections of tincture of iodine into the tunica 
vaginalis after emptying the same of its watery contents. Cas- 
tration is usually necessary. 

Describe fully ovariotomy in the bitch, including care and after-treat- 
ment. 
Fast the patient for 24 hours and give a physic before opera- 
tion. Use a general anaesthetic. Empty the bladder. Shave and 
disinfect an area, 6 cm. square, over the linea alba just anterior 
to the pubic brim. Make an incision on the median line about 5 cm. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 237 

long, extending anteriorly from the pubis, cutting through the 
skin, linea alba and peritoneum, with one stroke. Hold the wound 
open with retractors; locate the uterus and grasp it with forceps. 
By applying slight traction on the uterine cornua, each ovary may 
be exposed and removed by torsion or ligating and cutting. Draw 
both cornua, with the ovaries attached, through the opening and 
rupture them transversely near their bifurcation. The body of the 
uterus may be ligated with catgut and the horns removed by cutting. 
Close the skin and muscle wound with interrupted sutures. Paint 
the wound with collodion and apply a body bandage. Remove the 
skin sutures in about three days and cauterize any exuberant granu- 
lations that may have formed. Feed sparingly for a few days after 
operation. 

Describe vaginal ovariotomy in the mare. Mention the accidents that 
may occur. 

Fast the patient for 24 hours and give a physic before operation. 
Secure the patient in the stocks, bandage the tail and draw it aside, 
cleanse the vulva, clitoris, tail and perineal region by scrubbing with 
soap and water. After washing thoroughly, disinfect the external 
parts and for a short distance inside the vulvar lips with a 1 : 1000 
aqueous sublimate solution. Rinse away the sublimate solution 
with a 0.6 per cent, solution of sodium bicarbonate, and fill the 
vulvovaginal canal with the same. The operator's nails, hands and 
arms must be scrupulously cleansed and disinfected, and all instru- 
ments must be sterilized. ''Balloon" the vagina by introducing a 
tepid sterile water or salt solution into it. When ballooned prop- 
erly, pass the hand with a sheathed knife and push the blade forward 
through the vaginal wall and peritoneum, a little above and to one 
side of the os uteri. Remove the knife, reintroduce the hand, and 
by careful manipulation push the hand through, the incision and 
locate the ovaries. Pass the ecraseur alongside of the arm, carry 
it to an ovary and place the chain over the same. Tighten the chain 
and cut the ovary free, removing same with the inserted hand. Re- 
peat the same on the other ovary. Keep the patient quiet for five 
or six days. 

Dangers: Incision in the vaginal wall may be carried into the 
rectum, iliac arteries, posterior aorta, or uterine cavity. The 
incision may not penetrate the peritoneum and thus embarrass the 
operator by forming a large cavity between the vaginal and peri- 
toneal walls. Inexperienced operators have removed a baU of faeces 
in mistake for an ovary. By faulty technic, infection may be car- 
ried into the peritoneum and produce fatal peritonitis. 



238 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Give the operative methods of treating inversion of the uterus. 

Cleanse and suture any wounds. Give two ounces of chloral 
hydrate. Elevate the posterior parts and attempt reposition by care- 
ful manipulations. Inject lukewarm water to smooth out the folds. 
Apply a truss or suture the vulva, if necessary. Keep the hind parts 
elevated for a few days. It is better to prevent straining by reduc- 
ing the inflammation than to use sutures, etc. If the prolapsed 
organ is badly damaged, amputation is the only resort. 

Give the treatment of purulent mastitis in cattle. 

Apply hot fomentations or poultices. Drain abscesses and dis- 
infect. Irrigate the galactophorous sinuses with a four per cent, 
solution of boric acid. It may be necessary to amputate one or 
both halves of the udder. 

Give the symptoms and the treatment of stenosis of the mammary duct 
in the cow. 

Inability to obtain milk when the teat is compressed or the milk 
may escape in a thin stream only. Milking causes pain which is 
resented by the patient. A small lump, *' spider," may be felt in 
the teat. 

Treatment: Pass teat sounds of gradually increasiug sizes. If 
this fails, use a teat slitter (special instrument) and enlarge the 
duct. It may be necessary to amputate the end of the teat where 
the obstruction usually is located. 

Diseases op the Spinal Column and Pelvis 

Give the symptoms, prognosis and treatment of fracture of the tuber- 
osity of the ischium. 

Symptoms : Swelling of the muscles and crepitation in the region 
of buttocks. Dragging of the toe. Equal weight is placed on each 
foot. 

Prognosis: Requires months to unite or heal and sometimes 
results in dragging of the toe. 

Treatment : Rest for four to six weeks. Massage the muscles to 
prevent atrophy. It may be necessary to make an incision and 
remove sequestra of bone. 

Give the diagnosis of fracture through the acetabulum of the pelvis. 

Severe swinging-leg and supporting-leg lameness. Often accom- 
panied by groaning. Crepitation when the leg is moved or weight 
is placed upon it. Sinking of the hip region. Examination per 
rectum will locate the protruding head of the femur. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 239 

Give the prognosis and treatment of fracture of the external angle of 

the ilium. 

Prognosis is favorable, although a permanent blemish results. 

Treatment: Rest the patient for 3 to 4 weeks, and keep in 

slings to prevent further injuries or displacement of the broken 

pieces by lying down. 

What is the object of caudal myotomy? Describe the operation. 

The operation is performed for the correction of curved tail. 

Con£ne the patient in stocks or control with a side line and 
twitch. Cleanse and disinfect the tail, and bend it in the opposite 
direction to the curvature. Locate the longitudinal furrow be- 
tween the levator and depressor muscles on the convex side, and 
insert a tenotome at the lower margin of the levator, in the most 
prominent part of the curvature. Push the knife through the muscle 
to the vertebrae, turn the cutting edge upward against the lateral 
muscle and sever it completely. Remove the knife and bandage 
an antiseptic pad over the wound, leaving the same in place for 
24 hours. 

Describe an operation for amputation of the tail. When is this opera- 
tion indicated? 

This operation may be performed by clipping the hair over 
the seat of operation and using the docking shears, controlling 
hemorrhage by searing the stump with a red-hot iron. The iron 
also provides a protective scab. 

A more strictly surgical procedure is to make two semi-elliptical 
flaps with the scalpel, by cutting through the skin and muscles 
in an oblique direction, above and below (over a joint if possible), 
disarticulate or chisel through the bone and suture the flaps over 
the end of the stump. 

The operation is indicated in malignant or incurable diseases 
of the tail. 

Diseases of the Fore Limb 

Give the diagnostic symptoms of shoulder lameness. What treatment 
is employed in shoulder lameness. 
Suddenly appearing lameness of a supporting and swinging-leg 
type. The leg is held in abduction and little weight is placed on it. 
The forward stride is shortened and the toe is dragged. Inflamma- 
tory swellings accompanied by increased warmth and pain may 
appear over the shoulder joint. 

Treatment: Rest is imperative. In acute inflammatory con- 
ditions, cold applications are indicated. Later, counterirritants 



240 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

are best. Subcutaneous injections of Lugol's solution, in several 
points, over the joint is a good method of applying counterirritation 
and leaves no unsightly blemish. 

Describe cold abscess of the shoulder. Give cause and treatment. 

A sharply defined, slightly painful tumor, lying in or below 
the levator humeri muscle as it passes over the shoulder-joint. The 
skin is sound and moveable and the thick, hard wall of the tumor 
may show a point of fluctuation (pus). 

Cause: Infection following bruising by an ill-fitting collar on 
a patient doing heavy draft work. 

Treatment: Open the abscess, curette the cavity or cauterize 
with a white-hot iron. Dress the wound daily with antiseptics. 
If the growth is extensive, it may be necessary to remove some or all 
of the new-formed tissue. 

Give cause, symptoms and treatment of paralysis of the suprascapular 
nerve. 

Cause: Violent backward movements of the shoulder or leg, 
causing overstretching of the nerve. Bruises to the nerve by blows, 
collar, etc. 

Symptoms: Scapula and humerus are jerked away from the 
wall of the thorax when weight is placed on the affected leg. 
Atrophy of the paralyzed muscles occurs later. The atrophy is most 
marked in the infra- and supraspinati and the two teres muscles. 
It is noticeable by the apparent increased projection of the scapular 
spine, and is referred to by laymen as **sweeney." 

Treatment: Massage and counterirritants such as subcutaneous 
injections of Lugol's solution. Usually requires 6 to 8 weeks and 
often months to effect a cure. Some cases never recover. 

Describe dislocation of the scapulohumeral articulation. 

It is caused by excessive movement of the joint, and appears as 
a sudden lameness and difficulty in moving the joint. Passive move- 
ment of the joint is interfered with by the swelling and tenderness. 
Treatment should be directed to immediate reduction of the luxation. 
Apply cold compresses and rest the patient as long as lameness 
exists. 

Give the etiology and the treatment of shoe-boil (fibrous growth). 

Etiology: Bruises of the elbow in lying and arising. Pressure 
from the shoe when recumbent is often cited as a cause, but is 
undoubtedly a minor consideration. 

Treatment : Operative removal with the patient under a general 
anaesthetic. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 241 

Describe the care and the treatment of a shoe-boil of (a) recent origin, 
(b) long standing. 

(a) Cold applications and astringent lotions. If pus be present, 
incise and disinfect. 

(b) There is a fibrous growth present and it must be surgically 
removed. 

Give the symptoms, prognosis and treatment of fracture of the ulna. 

Symptoms: Supporting-leg lameness; flexion of all the joints 
from the elbow downward ; displacement of the ulna and severe pain 
in this region. Crepitation may be detected. 

Prognosis : Unfavorable, best to destroy. 

Treatment: Useless. Slings may be tried. Impossible to 
bandage. 

What are the diagnostic symptoms of complete radial paralysis ? Give 
method of treatment. 

Symptoms: Supporting-leg lameness; the shoulder and elbow- 
joints extended, while all the other joints are flexed. The anterior 
wall of the foot may be almost in contact with the ground. Inability 
to support weight on the leg. The triceps are relaxed and unable 
to contract; later atrophy of these muscles appears. 

Treatment: Nothing direct can be done. Massage the muscles 
and rest the patient. Electricity and counterirritants are of ques- 
tionable value. 

What are the indications for treatment in a case of " broken knee " 
with synovitis present? 
Very carefully cleanse and disinfect the wound and cover it 
with an antiseptic dressing. Tie the horse up or use slings to 
prevent lying down. Suture the wound if practicable, otherwise 
leave open. Change the dressing daily, irrigating the wound with 
1-1000 corrosive sublimate solution. Later, dry dressings such as 
iodoform and tannic acid are indicated. 

Describe the operation of tenotomy as employed in shortening of the 
flexor tendons. 
Secure the animal in lateral recumbency. Extend the affected 
leg and apply an extension splint on the under side, or have an 
assistant hold the leg in extreme extension. Shave and disinfect 
the skin over the tendon of the flexor pedis muscle in the middle 
of the cannon bone on the inner side. Insert a sharp-pointed teno- 
tome, with the cutting edge toward the foot, through the skin and 
underlying tissues on the anterior border of the flexor pedis tendon. 
Push the tenotome through until the point is felt beneath the 
16 



242 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

skin on the opposite side. Turn the cutting edge against the tendon, 
which is rendered tense by an assistant, and cut through it. When 
completely severed, resistance to extension ceases. Remove the 
knife and bandage the wound. Healing should occur by first inten- 
tion if careful antisepsis is observed. Keep the animal standing 
and exercise moderately for the first few days following operation. 

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of inflammation of the flexor 
tendons. 

Causes : Strains from slipping, improper shoeing (low heels and 
long toes), heavy pulling, jumping, continued standing in thoracic 
diseases or lameness in the opposite leg. 

Symptoms : Supporting-leg lameness. The foot is extended for- 
ward or held with the heels raised. Shortening of the last phase of 
movement is noted. Local pain, swelling and warmth. In later 
stages, there may be shortening of the tendons and continuous volar 
flexion together with uprightness of the hoof. Weight is now placed 
on the leg. In shortening of the flexor pedis perf oratus, the obliquity 
of the pastern joint only is affected, the hoof remaining in a normal 
position. 

Treatment: Rest and cold applications for the first day or two. 
Then, moist warmth, massage and infrictions with mild blistering 
agents are used. Old thickenings are best treated by firing. Shoe 
with a low toe-calk and elevated heel-calks. In chronic cases accom- 
panied by shortening, tenotomy offers the only relief. See preced- 
ing question. 

Give the causes, symptoms, prognosis and treatment of sprain of the 
inferior suspensory ligament. 

Causes and symptoms are about the same as in tendinitis as de- 
scribed in preceding answer. Lameness is not so marked. Tender- 
ness is detected by pressing in deep close to the bone and anterior 
to the tendons with the foot raised. Chronic cases, accompanied 
by shortening, affect only the obliquity of the pastern, the hoof 
remains in a normal position. 

Prognosis: Favorable. 

Treatment: Same as for inflamed tendons. Raising the heels, 
however, does no good in this case and cutting of the ligament is not 
generally employed. 

What is the etiology of splint? 

Splints are due to a periostitis which develops between the large 
and the inner small metacarpal bones. Rarely, between the large 
and outer bone. This periostitis is due to traumatic irritation of 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 243 

the interosseous ligament, periosteum and bones. The irritation 
may be from blows as interfering, or from unequal distribution 
of pressure in the knee which throws an excessive load on the inner 
small metacarpus and ruptures the interosseous ligament. 

Symptoms: In early stages, lameness is seen which is more 
marked at the trot. If high, affecting the carpus, the leg is held in 
abduction and extreme lameness is shown. Slight swelling, increased 
heat and pain on pressure can be readily detected. "When the in- 
flammation subsides, an exostosis remains as a blemish. 

Treatment: Rest is important and in most cases is the only 
treatment needed. If due to striking, correct this fault by proper 
shoeing. In young horses, splint lameness often disappears spon- 
taneously. Mild blisters and the firing iron may be used in severe 
cases. The exostosis called the * ' splint, ' ' if unaccompanied by lame- 
ness, should not be interfered with unless, by reason of its size, it is 
struck by the opposite foot, then its removal may be attempted by 
chiselling it off. 

Give the symptoms and the treatment of fracture of the metacarpus. 

Sjnnptoms: Displacement and abnormal mobility of the parts. 
Inability to place weight on the leg and crepitation may be noted. 

Treatment : Place patient in slings. Replace the parts in proper 
position and apply a plaster-of-Paris bandage. Leave the plaster 
cast in place for six weeks. Some advocate turning the horse in 
pasture after the cast hardens, but quietude is better. 

Give the symptoms and the treatment of fracture of the os suffraginis. 
Sjnnptoms: Sudden lameness with volar flexion of the fetlock. 
Passive rotation of the foot produces crepitation in a complete frac- 
ture. In case of fissure, a line of tenderness may be detected on 
palpation, but no crepitation. 

Treatment: Place patient in slings. Replace the parts in pro- 
per position and fix firmly with a plaster-of-Paris bandage. After 
the cast hardens, it may be advisable to provide a soft bed and allow 
the patient to lie down, thus preventing laminitis or other lameness 
in the sound foot by reason of its bearing additional weight. 

Define ring-bone. Give the symptoms and the treatment of the same. 
Ring-bone is a collective term for various chronic aseptic inflam- 
matory processes at the coronary joint, attended with swelling. 
According to location, we distinguish two forms, viz., articular, in- 
volving the joint, and periarticular, in which the joint is not 
affected. 



244 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Symptoms: Chronic enlargement around tlie coronet joint. 
Lameness in which the latter phase of the stride is shortened. 
In the articular form, lameness is seen when the patient is turned 
in short circles toward the diseased side. Tenderness of the swell- 
ing is usually present. The phalanges show volar flexion, that is, the 
fetlock is upright. 

Treatment: Shoe with raised heels and shorten the toe, that 
is, prepare and shoe the foot so that the pastern lies parallel with 
the walls of the hoof. Point firing and blisters are beneficial if the 
animal is rested four to six weeks. This failing to remove the lame- 
ness, neurectomy is the last resort, but is of value only when 
anchylosis has not occurred. In the latter condition, the lameness 
is mechanical and may be relieved by the use of a rolling-motion 
shoe. 

Describe neurectomy of the median nerve. 

This operation may be performed under local or general anaes- 
thesia. The point of operation is opposite the lower portion of 
the elbow-joint, immediately behind the upper extremity of the 
radius, toward the upper point in the depression between the radius 
and the internal flexor muscle of the metacarpus. The nerve can 
be exactly located by palpation. Shave and disinfect the skin and 
make an incision 5 cm. long, parallel to and directly over the nerve, 
through the skin and sterno-aponeuroticus muscle, exposing the anti- 
brachial fascia. Divide the fascia and, if necessary, remove a small 
elliptical piece of the same. Pass an aneurism needle under the 
nerve and separate it from the neighboring tissues. Excise a sec- 
tion of the nerve 3 cm. long. Disinfect the wound and suture. 
(Care should be taken to avoid injuring the brachial vein, as hemor- 
rhage from same would be very annoying.) 

Mention the diseases in which median neurectomy would be indicated. 
Navicular disease, ring-bone, side-bones, chronic sesamoiditis, 
splints, chronic carpitis. In the latter three, ulnar neurectomy 
ought also to be performed. In chronic synovitis (articular and ten- 
dinous) with permanent lameness, median neurectomy may be 
performed. 

Describe the operation of high plantar neurectomy. 

Operate on the standing animal, using local anaesthesia. The 
point of operation is just above the fetlock in the lower third of the 
metacarpus, and just in front of the flexor pedis tendon. The exact 
point is determined by feeling the nerve glide beneath the fingers. 
Shave and disinfect a small area. Make an incision 3 to 5 cm. long, 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 245 

parallel to and directly over the nerve, cutting through the skin 
and connective tissue, exposing the nerve. Separate the nerve from 
the adjacent tissues and excise a section 3 to 5 cm. long. Suture 
the wound and cover with bandage. Healing should occur by first 
intention. Repeat the operation on the opposite side. 

Name three diseases for the relief of which plantar neurectomy is 
indicated. 
Navicular disease, ring-bone and side-bone. 

Describe the relations of the artery, vein, nerve and tendon in the 
region of the ergot at the seat of plantar neurectomy. 
From before backward, vein, artery, nerve and tendon. The 
nerve lies close to the external margin of the tendon. 

State your opinion regarding the use of the actual cautery in the relief 
of equine lameness. 
The direct results which are attributed to the use of the actual 
cautery, e.g., strengthening tendons by the formation of cica- 
tricial tissue, etc., are considerably overrated. The benefits are 
usually derived, indirectly, from the enforced rest following its use. 
Nevertheless, the actual cautery is a very valuable therapeutic agent. 
Puncture-firing augments local nutritive activity, converting chronic 
into acute processes and thus hastens their termination. Firing 
operations necessitate protracted rest and cause more or less im- 
mobility of the defective organs, both of which are of great benefit 
in bringing about a cure. 

Diseases of the Hind Limb 

Name the various conditions listed under the category of " hip lame- 
ness." Give the diagnostic symptoms and the treatment 
of hip lameness. 
1, coxitis ; 2, rupture of the ligamentum teres ; 3, disease of the 
lumbar vertebra3, pelvic bones and femur ; 4, disease of the muscles 
of the hip region ; 5, disease of the tendon and tendon bursa of the 
gluteus medius muscle (trochanteric lameness) ; 6, inflammation in 
the structures surrounding the hip-joint ; 7, lameness due to fracture 
or other disease of the external angle of the ilium is often erroneously 
referred to as hip lameness. 

Symptoms: Swinging-leg lameness; difficulty in advancing the 
limb ; dragging of the toe. In coxitis, there is supporting-leg lame- 
ness, not so in the muscular forms. Lameness is marked in turning 
or backing. Muscular atrophy is noted in cases of long duration. 



246 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Hip lameness is best diagnosed by a process of exclusion and is 
very difficult at times. 

Treatment: Rest is necessary. Apply counterirritants such as 
subcutaneous or intramuscular injections of dilute Lugol's solution. 
Setons, blisters and the firing iron are used. 

Give the diagnosis and prognosis of fracture of the femur. 

Diagnosed by the presence of severe pain, leg abducted when 
advanced. Supporting-leg lameness; crepitation. Fracture of the 
trochanter is marked by swelling and pronounced swinging-leg lame- 
ness, shortening of the forward stride and abduction of the limb. 
Weight may be placed on the leg. Fractures into the stifle-joint may 
show symptoms of gonitis. 

Prognosis : Very unfavorable. Best to destroy. Fracture of the 
trochanter is least dangerous. 

Give the symptoms and treatment of stifle lameness. 

The term "stifle lameness" is a collective one. The following 
conditions are included under this caption: 1, acute and chronic 
gonitis ; 2, strains of the patellar ligaments ; 3, bursitis prepatellaris ; 
4, luxations and fractures of the patella. The term is usually 
referred to the first named. 

Symptoms : Gradually increasing lameness ; limb held in a flexed 
position, or, if both limbs are affected, they are rested alternately. 
In moving, the limb is carried stiffly, the toe dragging or hitting 
slight prominences. In acute conditions, a diffuse swelling is seen 
and tenderness is very marked. Chronic cases show a distention of 
the joint capsule below the pateUa. 

Treatment: Acute conditions call for cold irrigation and com- 
presses. Later, a blister may be of benefit. Chronic cases are 
usually incurable, although blisters and the firing iron may be tried. 

Describe the symptoms and the treatment of displacement of the 
patella. 
Symptoms: Momentary upward (habitual) luxation may be 
overlooked, or the patella may remain fast for a moment and then 
suddenly descend with each step, showing a slight check to move- 
ment, similar to that seen in string-halt. In stationary upward 
luxation, the limb is stiffly extended backward and cannot be 
advanced. Inability to flex the limb, and the patella is fixed on 
the upper portion of the internal lip of the trochlea. Outward 
luxation is shown by inability to bear weight on the limb, due 
to the loss of function of the rectus and vasti muscles. The limb can 
be advanced but the stride is shortened and lameness is shown when 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 247 

weight is placed on the limb ; excessive flexion of all the joints of the 
limb occurs. 

Treatment: Immediate reduction of the luxation, using great 
force if necessary, should be effected. In upward displacement, 
drawing the leg forward with a rope attached to the fetlock region, 
or starting the animal suddenly with a whip, will often bring about 
reduction. Keep the patient very quiet in slings. A blister applied 
over the stifle will help in keeping the limb at rest. If due to general 
weakness and relaxation of the ligaments from disease, attempt 
building up the general health. Momentary luxation is said to 
have been cured by dividing the inner straight ligament 
(desmotomy). 

Describe briefly patellar desmotomy (ligament section). 

The object of this operation is for the relief of habitual luxation 
of the patella, or patellar string-halt, as it is sometimes called. The 
operation has been but little tried in this country or elsewhere, 
and its value is still suh judice. 

Secure the patient in lateral recumbency with the affected leg 
beneath and extended. General anaesthesia should be employed. 
Locate the internal ligament, running from the patella obliquely to 
the supero-internal part of the tibia. Shave and disinfect a suffi- 
cient area. Make an incision, 2 inches long, through the skin, 
parallel to and directly over the middle third of the ligament, 
exposing the fascia. Cut through the fascia, insert a blunt-pointed 
bistoury beneath the ligament from behind forward and sever the 
ligament. Suture the sMn wound and cover with collodion. 

Give the symptoms of ruptured flexor metatarsi tendon. 

Lameness when the limb is carried forward ; the stifle is flexed 
but the hock is excessively extended. The symptoms resemble those 
of a broken bone but the absence of fracture is shown by the ability 
to support weight on the limb. The symptoms are more apparent 
during movement. Swelling and pain may be present over the 
anterior surface of the tibia. 

Describe cunean tenotomy. What is the object of this operation? 

Operate on the standing animal, using local anaesthesia and a 
sideline on the opposite leg. Locate the cunean tendon by palpation 
as it passes obliquely downward and backward over the inferior 
median surface of the hock. Shave and disinfect an area, 5 to 6 cm. 
square. At a point about 1 cm. below the inferior border of the 
tendon, midway between the anterior and posterior borders of the 
hock, insert a narrow-bladed scalpel, flatwise, through the skin and 



248 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

upward between the skin and tendon, to the superior border of the 
latter. Turn the cutting edge against the tendon and by firm 
pressure cut through the same. A well-marked depression between 
the cut ends can be detected when the operation is complete. Dis- 
infect the wound and apply an antiseptic bandage. Healing by first 
intention should follow. 

Object : Relief of spavin lameness and as an adjunct to peroneal 
tenotomy for string-halt. 

State the object of peroneal tenotomy. Describe the operation. 

Object : For the relief of string-halt. 

Shave and disinfect a small area just below the hock on the 
outer side, where the peroneal tendon is almost subcutaneous, and 
about 6 cm. above its point of union with the tendon of the extensor 
pedis longus muscle. Hold up the opposite hind limb with a side- 
line and apply a twitch to the nose. Stretch the skin tightly, insert 
the tenotome through the skin and underlying fascia, push it under 
the tendon, turn the cutting edge against the same and sever it as 
well as the fascia through to the skin. An antiseptic bandage should 
be applied and left in position for eight days. The cutaneous 
wound should heal by first intention. A rest of one to two weeks 
is usually demanded, although some operators claim the best results 
to follow immediate exercise. 

Mention the various forms of spavin and give the treatment of each. 

1. Arthritis chronica deformans tarsi (bone spavin). 
Produce anchylosis of the joint by prolonged rest for six weeks 

or longer, in connection with deep point firing and blistering. 
Cunean tenotomy, as described in preceding answer, is used by 
some, periosteotomy by others. Whichever method is used, the 
benefits which follow are due to the anchylosis brought about princi- 
pally through the enforced rest. As a last resort, anterior and 
posterior tibial neurectomy may be employed. Shoe with raised 
heels and shortened toe. 

2. Bog-spavin (excessive distention of the capsule of the true 
hock joint, due to chronic synovitis). 

Recent cases are treated by cold applications and later by blister- 
ing. Massage and repeated painting with tincture of iodine may 
diminish the swelling. Extensive swelling may be reduced by the 
actual cautery. This condition seldom causes lameness and is best 
left alone. 

3. "Blood-spavin,'' formerly classified as a variety of spavin, is 
no longer recognized as such. It is simply a distention of the saphena 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 249 

vein as it courses over the hock. Lameness accompanying its pres- 
ence is usually due to an underlying true spavin (arthritis chronica 
deformans tarsi) and should be treated accordingly. 

Give the pathology of thorough-pin. 

Generally due to chronic synovitis brought on by severe exertion. 
It may follow an acute synovitis, and consists of a distention of the 
capsule of the tendon in the upper posterior part of the hock-joint. 
Occasionally this sheath of the flexor pedis tendon communicates 
with the capsule of the true hock-joint and hence we may see 
bog-spavin and thorough-pin coexisting. Thorough-pin is seldom 
accompanied by acute inflammation and hence lameness is rare. 

Define curb. Give treatment for curb. 

Curb is a thickening of the metatarsoealcanean ligament, result- 
ing from inflammation. The term curb is often applied to any 
swelling which causes a deviation from the normal straight line 
from the tuber calcanei to the fetlock. 

Treatment : Acute inflammation calls for antiphlogistic measures 
such as cold irrigation. Burrow's lotion, etc. Later, blistering, or 
line firing and blistering with rest, is indicated. 

Define " capped hock " and give causes and treatment of same. 

Capped hock refers to any swelling on the point of the os calcis. 
It may be due to inflammatory swellings or thickenings in the skin 
and subcutis, gravitation of swellings originating above, hydrops 
of the subcutaneous bursa of the flexor pedis perforatus tendon, or 
swelling of this tendon. 

Causes: Kicks, violent exertion, slipping and external injuries 
from various sources. 

Treatment: Acute inflammatory conditions demand cold appli- 
cations. Later, absorbing applications, such as tincture of iodine 
or mercuric blisters. Extensive swellings may require antiseptic 
puncturing with a hollow needle and the application of a pressure 
bandage. Wounds require the usual antiseptic treatment. In 
swellings of the skin, massage is beneficial. 

Describe anterior tibial neurectomy. 

Operate on the standing animal with local anaesthesia but it is 
better to use general anaesthesia with the animal cast and confined. 
Locate the furrow between the extensor pedis and the peroneus 
muscles. Shave and disinfect an area, 6 cm. long by 3 cm. wide, 
directly over this furrow and extending upward from a point 6 or 7 
cm. above the tibio-astragaloid articulation. At a point 8 to 10 cm. 



250 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

above the flexure of the hock, opposite the external margin of the* 
extensor pedis muscle, make an incision, 5 to 6 cm. long, through 
the skin and underlying aponeurosis. Separate this muscle, first 
from the tendinous, then from the muscular portion of the flexor 
metatarsi, on the anterior side of the margin of which the anterior 
tibial nerve is seen. Pass an aneurism needle underneath it and 
remove a piece, 3 to 4 cm. long. Close the cutaneous wound with 
interrupted sutures and apply a collodion dressing. 

Describe posterior tibial neurectomy. 

Operate on the standing animal with local anaesthesia, side-line 
and twitch. Operating table with general anaesthesia is better. 
Shave and disinfect an area, 10 cm. above the top of the os calcis 
and 2 em. in front of the tendon Achilles, on the median side. Make 
• an incision about 5 cm. long parallel to the above-mentioned ten- 
don, through the skin. Ascertain, by palpation, the exact location 
of the nerve and cut through the fascia over it, exposing the nerve. 
Separate it from the surrounding tissues and remove a piece, 3 cm. 
long. Suture the cutaneous wound and apply an antiseptic bandage. 
Healing by first intention should follow. 

Diseases of the Foot 

Mention ten diseases of the foot and specify those met with most fre- 
quently. 

Ring-bone, side-bone, navicular disease, laminitis, pododermatitis 
(including corns), and quittor are more frequently met with. Less 
commonly, we see keraphyllocele, contracted sole, quarter crack 
and canker. 

What are the symptoms of fracture of the navicular bone? Give prog- 
nosis and treatment. 

Symptoms: Foot continually rested and held in excessive volar 
flexion. Extreme pain is shown when the coronet joint is passively 
extended. Later, an inflammatory swelling occurs in the hollow of 
the heel. 

Prognosis: Unfavorable. Chronic lameness is very likely to 
follow. 

Treatment : Complete rest is essential. Apply cold compresses. 
Resection of the flexor pedis perforans and removal of the os navi- 
culare may be attempted. As this operation is occasionally per- 
formed in case of penetrating street-nail, it would seem permissible 
in this condition. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 251 

Give the S3nnptoms and the treatment of fracture of the os corona. 

Symptoms : Sudden severe lameness ; volar flexion of the fetlock 
joint and crepitation in the affected region will make the diagnosis 
easy. Fissures are harder to detect and require careful examination. 

Treatment: Complete fixation in a plaster cast for six weeks. 
Lameness following may be removed by median neurectomy. Usually 
unfavorable. 

Give the pathology and the treatment of side-bones. 

Side-bone is a condition in which the lateral cartilages of the 
foot are partially or entirely ossified. The causes are excessive 
concussion by work on hard roads, shoes with high heel-calks which 
prevent the normal frog-pressure, and traumatisms. There is a 
congenital predisposition in heavy coarse-bred horses, a large per- 
centage of which are affected. 

Treatment : Kest the horse, remove shoes and place the patient in 
a peat-moss or other soft bed. Thin the wall over the affected 
cartilage and apply wet swabs to soften the horn. A special shoe 
is necessary when the outer cartilage is ossified and the correspond- 
ing quarter is contracted. After the lameness lessens, or disap- 
pears, prepare the foot for the shoe by lowering the outer wall more 
than the inner. The shoe should be flat, the outer branch broad and 
well set out, the inner branch closely fitted, thus giving a wider 
supporting surface on the outside. If both cartilages are affected, 
a plain open shoe with high calks is best. The bar-shoe is contra- 
indicated, as frog-pressure is undesirable in this condition. As 
a last resort, perform neurectomy to remove lameness. 

Mention the varieties of ring-bone and give treatment of each 
variety. 

1. Articular: Lameness can only be removed by performing 
neurectomy, and then only in case anchylosis has not occurred. 

2. Peri-articular: Level the foot and apply a level shoe or 
one with the heels raised slightly and the toe shortened. Rest 
for six weeks may be enforced by, and benefit derived from point- 
firing and blistering. These measures failing, neurectomy is the 
only resort. 

3. Traumatic and rachitic forms are sometimes noted. These 
seldom cause severe lameness. Treat with cold applications or 
blisters. 

Give the symptoms and the treatment of quittor. 

Symptoms : The first symptom is a diffuse swelling in the region 
of the coronet and bulb of the heel. Later, abscess formation occurs 



252 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

with a discharge of pus. This may cease and a new abscess form 
in a different place, and so on until the whole cartilage is more or less 
necrotic. Lameness is usually slight unless the pedal joint is 
invaded. In long-standing cases, the wall is thrust outward and 
ringed. 

Treatment: In the early stages, when the pain is slight and 
the patient is able to work, antiseptic injections may be tried. 
Caustic agents such as a 10 per cent, solution of zinc chloride or 
silver nitrate, and corrosive sublimate may benefit. Formalin in a 
10 per cent, solution may cause the discharge to cease. Operative 
removal of the affected cartilage is usually necessary and is best 
performed early. 

Give in detail Bayer's operation for quittor. 

Shave the hair from the coronary region up to the fetlock. Scrub 
the parts with brush and soap. Apply an antiseptic pack and leave 
for 24 hours. Use general anesthesia. Apply a tourniquet above 
the fetlock. Remove a crescent-shaped piece of horn from the area 
over the cartilage. Make a corresponding incision through the sensi- 
tive structures, about % inch within the incision through the horn ; 
the ends of the incision are prolonged upward, dividing the coronary 
band, etc., as high as the upper margin of the lateral cartilage. The 
flap, thus outlined, is dissected away from the underlying cartilage, 
and the latter is then removed, either wholly or in part, depending 
upon the extent of the disease. Freely curette away all necrotic 
tissue. Disinfect the wound and dust freely with iodoform. Suture 
the flap, cover the surface with an antiseptic pack and bandage. 
Leave this dressing in position for ten or twelve days if no great 
pain is shown and no bad odor or discharge is given off. 

Give the symptoms and the treatment of chronic navicular disease. 

Symptoms: Supporting and swinging-leg lameness. Lameness 
is increased by exercise, decreased by rest. Volar flexion of the 
phalanges and extension of the foot. Tenderness to pressure over 
the navicular bone and to forcible dorsal flexion. The use of 
cocaine will aid in the diagnosis. When both feet are affected, the 
last phase of movement is shortened and the limbs are carried stiffly 
and rapidly forward. Sometimes the lameness disappears after 
exercise but more often it is aggravated. A decrease in lameness 
follows a long rest. Muscular contraction and hoof contraction 
follow disuse. 

Treatment : In recent cases, a long rest in a box with peat moss, 
tan-bark or soft clay, together with the application of wet swabs 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 253 

on the feet, may assist repair. Shortening of the toe and raising of 
the heels of the shoe will often relieve lameness to such an extent 
that light work can be performed. In most cases, neurectomy is the 
only measure that will render the horse serviceable. 

Describe pumiced sole of the foot, giving cause, prognosis and treat- 
ment. 

Pumiced sole is that condition in which the horny sole in the 
neighborhood of the toe readily crumbles away and leaves the 
sensitive tissues more or less exposed. 

Cause: Seen as a complication of laminitis. May follow punc- 
tured wounds of the foot or bruises of the sole where exudation from 
the secreting membrane occurs. 

Prognosis: Favorable if due to wounds or bruises with simple 
exudation and separation of the tissues. If due to laminitis with 
dropping of the sole, an incurable lameness results. 

Treatment : Provide drainage and apply antiseptic dressings to 
wounds and bruises. Chronic laminitis calls for special shoeing. 
A wall-bearing shoe with thin heels and thick toes and a protective 
dressing over the exposed parts are indicated. 

What is seedy-toe? Give treatment of seedy-toe. 

Seedy-toe is characterized by the separation of the horny wall 
from the sensitive laminae at the toe and an accumulation of imper- 
fect horn or horn debris in the space formed. It follows an injury 
which destroys the sensitive laminae. The modified horn is produced 
by the imperfectly regenerated secreting structures. Also seen as 
a complication of laminitis. 

Treatment: Rasp away the wall over the affected area and re- 
move all imperfect horn tissue. Apply antiseptic packs and later 
use a tar dressing. A special shoe to protect the exposed toe may 
be necessary. 

Give the pathology and the treatment of corns. 

A corn is the result of an injury to the pododerm in the angle 
between the quarter and the bar. The laminae of the bar and quar- 
ters and the velvety tissue of the sole may be involved. The primary 
injury causes hemorrhage between the pododerm and horn. Unless 
infection enters, the only lesions produced are the blood-stained horn 
tubules which are exposed by paring away of the horn. This con- 
dition is called dry corn. Should infection enter, a suppurating 
condition is produced and the pus may work its way upward and 
break out between the wall and the coronary band, causing severe 
lameness (suppurating corn). 



254 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

In chronic corns, the horn is permanently altered, being either 
soft and moist or dry and crumbled. The inner surface of the horn 
is covered with horny swellings or nodules and the patient presents 
well-marked lameness. 

Corns are caused by overparing and thus weakening the horn; 
by contracted heels, by improper balancing, and shoeing of the foot ; 
by neglecting shoeing; by lack of moisture; by direct traumatisms 
as from stones, bruises, etc. Ossification of the lateral cartilages 
lessens the elasticity and thus increases the effect of concussion when 
the foot is brought in contact with the ground. Hence corns and 
side-bones are often associated in the same foot. 

Treatment : Remove the cause ; shorten the toe, lower the quar- 
ters and remove all dead horn. Avoid too much paring and expos- 
ing of the sensitive laminae. Apply a bar-shoe with leather sole 
and pack the foot with tarred oakum. If side-bones are present, 
and a bar-shoe is not advisable, a three-quarter shoe may be used 
until the parts are normally restored. Suppurating corns should 
be freely drained and disinfected until the part is covered with 
horn, when a tar dressing and bar-shoe may be applied. 

Give the causes, symptoms and the treatment of thrush. 

Causes: Standing in filth (soiled bedding, urine, fseces, etc.), 
excessive paring of the frog, lack of frog-pressure, and hard work 
on stony ground are exciting causes of thrush. Among the predis- 
posing causes are : navicular disease, contracted heels and scratches. 

Symptoms : Increased moisture of the frog, an ill-smelling, dark- 
colored discharge which may entirely loosen the frog. Lameness 
may be present in severe cases. 

Treatment: Remove the cause; provide clean, dry bedding. 
Pare away all diseased and ragged portions of the frog. It may be 
necessary to remove all of the horny frog. Cleanse and dry the parts 
and keep dry by dusting with calomel. After healing occurs, 
apply a bar-shoe and tarred oakum, or otherwise provide for frog- 
pressure to prevent the contraction of the heels which often follows. 

Differentiate thrush and canker. Give prognosis and treatment of 
each. 

See answer to preceding question. 

Canker is a chronic inflammation of the secreting structures of 
the foot, due to the presence of an infection (probably specific), 
which prevents the growth of healthy horn and produces a greasy 
discharge, exceedingly offensive to the sense of smell. 

Prognosis: In canker, rather unfavorable. Requires long, con- 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 255 

tinued, patient endeavors to effect a cure. Relapses are common. 
Thrush usually responds readily to rational treatment. 

Treatment: In canker remove all diseased horn and cauterize; 
sulphuric acid, nitrate of silver, formalin, zinc chloride and tinc- 
ture of iodine have been used with good results. Daily cleansing 
is imperative. When healthy horn covers the affected parts, apply 
a tar dressing. 

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of laminitis. 

Causes: Overwork; long-continued rest; sudden cooling of the 
body after perspiring freely; overfeeding, especially when warm; 
occurs as a complication of colic, influenza, parturition, and as a 
sequel of severe purgation. 

Symptoms : Acute form appears suddenly with fever, character- 
istic attitude with fore feet advanced and hind feet thrust forward 
to relieve weight from the affected members. If all four feet are 
affected, all movement is exceedingly painful. Strong pulsation is 
noted in the plantar arteries and the feet are warm and very tender. 
These symptoms may disappear in from 7 to 10 days, or continue 
' into the chronic form. Sometimes suppuration occurs and is fol- 
lowed by shedding of the hoof. 

Chronic form : The soles ' ' drop ' ^ and the os pedis is displaced, 
shown by the depression around the coronet and the convexity of the 
sole. Seedy-toe often appears. The patient travels with the fore 
limbs in abnormal dorsal flexion, the heels striking the ground first. 
Rings form upon the walls of the hoof, showing the disturbed 
nutrition of the same. 

Treatment: Acute form: Remove the shoes and supply a soft 
bed so that the weight is supported by the soles as well as the walls. 
Use cold applications during the first 24 hours. Give a quick-acting 
cathartic such as arecoline and draw 6 or 8 quarts of blood if the 
patient is plethoric. After 24 hours, use hot applications. Stand 
the patient in a tub containing sufficient hot water to cover the 
feet. Give one grain of arecoline daily, in divided doses of % grain 
each. Feed a laxative diet. A blister around the coronet may 
relieve the soreness. 

In case of dropped sole (chronic case), proper shoeing is the 
only measure likely to benefit. An open shoe with a broad web and 
a wall-bearing surface only is best. A bar-shoe of the same type 
would be indicated if the wall is weak or broken away. Avoid toe- 
clips and side-clips if their presence produces pain in the sensitive 
structures beneath. 



256 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

State briefly the surgical details in treating a case of penetrating street- 
nail. 
Carefully pare away the sole around the point of entrance of the 
nail and provide drainage for any discharges which may form. 
Dress with antiseptics and keep the wound covered with absorbent 
gauze or cotton. If the nail has entered the navicular bursa, resec- 
tion of the perf orans tendon will be necessary. 

Describe a method of treating contracted hoof. 

Apply a bar-shoe, or a flat open shoe and the Chadwick spring. 
Keep the horn soft and pliable by frequent moistening. 

Hew would you shoe a horse to overcome forging? 

Shorten the toe of the fore foot and roll the toe of the shoe to 
facilitate quick * * breaking over. ' ' The ends of the branches of the 
shoe should be no longer than necessary to protect the heels and 
should be bevelled from the hoof surface of the shoe downward and 
forward under the foot. The hind foot should be lowered in the 
quarters and left long at the toe. It should be fitted with a shoe, 
squared at the toe and well rounded on the lower edge in this region. 
The shoe should be so fitted that at least three-fourths of an inch 
of the wall of the toe projects beyond the shoe. In feet in which 
the toe is too short, a low toe-calk may be used to cause slow ^'break- 
ing over. ' * 

Describe the treatment of quarter crack in a heavy draft horse. De- 
scribe the proper kind of shoe to apply in such a case. 
Thin the horn for an inch on both sides of the crack, directly 
over the coronary band, to prevent any friction between the sides 
of the crack. Immobilize the crack by bandaging the hoof with 
adhesive tape. Apply a bar-shoe, Chadwick spring and leather sole. 

Describe the shoe you would have applied in a case of contracted per- 
foratus and perforans tendons of the hind limb of a draft 
horse. 
An open shoe with low toe-calk and with heel-calks sufficiently 
high to give the necessary support to the heels. 

State the uses of a bar-shoe. When is a bar-shoe contra-indicated? 

The bar-shoe is used when frog-pressure is desired as in con- 
tracted quarters, contracted sole, chronic laminitis, quarter-crack, 
wry-hoof, and frog atrophy ; when it is desirable to relieve a diseased 
section of wall from pressure as in corns, etc. 

The bar-shoe is contra-indicated when side-bones or navicular 
disease are present, or when disease of the frog or subjacent tissues 
renders frog-pressure painful. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 267 

How would you shoe a horse to afford speedy relief from a bruised 
heel? 
Use a shoe with heel-calks and long branches which do not press 
upon the quarters. 

Methods op Restraint, Casting, Etc. 

Name three common methods of restraint. 

Side-line, hobbles and operating table. 

Mention three methods of restraint in the standing position and two 
in the recumbent position. 

1. Side-line, stocks and twitch. 

2. Hobbles and operating table. 

Describe two methods of casting the horse and ox for operation. 

Horse : 1. Adjust hobbles on all four feet. Pass a rope or chain 
through the rings in same and draw the feet together, causing the 
horse to fall. A soft bed should be provided for the horse to fall 
upon (English hobbles). 2. A casting harness may be used. A 
strong girth, provided with large rings, is buckled tightly around the 
chest close behind the elbows. Hobbles are placed on all four feet 
and ropes are run from the same to the rings on the sides of the girth. 
When the ropes are drawn taut, the horse falls and is secured by 
tying the feet to the girth. A ** figure 8" made with the rope on 
both hocks will hold the horse more securely. 

Ox: 1. Either of the above methods may be used. 2. A long 
rope (36 feet) is fastened, by one end, to the horns or head and 
carried backward, making three ''half -hitches" around the body, 
one just anterior to the shoulders, another, just back of the elbows, 
and the last around the abdomen, anterior to the external angle of 
the ilium. By pulling firmly on the free end of the rope thus 
adjusted, the ox will lie down. Hobbles can then be adjusted. 

Mention the chief accidents that may occur in casting and securing 
animals for operation. State how such accidents may be 
avoided. 

1. Fractured vertebrae. Provide a soft bed for the animal to 
fall upon. Prevent violent movements. Be sure the patient is free 
from an abnormal fragility of the bones before casting. Don't 
extend the hind limbs too forcibly, by drawing the feet too far for- 
ward and upward. 

2. Fracture of the external angle of the ilium. Provide a soft 
bed. Avoid throwing too suddenly. 

17 



258 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

3. Fracture of the pelvic girdle and femur may be due to abnor- 
mal fragility of the bones. 

4. Facial paralysis. Avoid by using a hood-wink which will 
protect the facial nerve from injury. 

What anaesthetics are commonly employed in major operations and 
minor operations on (a) the horse, (b) the ox, (c) the dog* 



(a) Major 
Minor 

(b) Major 
Minor 

(c) Major 
Minor 



chloroform, chloral hydrate, cannabis indica. 

cocaine hydrochlorate, stovaine and alypin. 

morphine, chloral hydrate and chloroform. 

cocaine hydrochlorate and stovaine. 

ether and morphine. 

cocaine hydrochlorate and stovaine. 



What are the dangers of chloroform anaesthesia? How may these 
dangers be avoided? 

1. Inhalation pneumonia : Keep the head lowered to allow better 
drainage from the nasal cavities. Fast the patient for 24 hours be- 
fore administering the angesthetic to lessen danger of regurgitation 
of food into the pharynx. Do not prolong the stage of anaesthesia 
unnecessarily. 

2. Syncope: Avoid giving the chloroform too fast and with 
insufficient air or over too long a period of time. Patients with 
heaves, valvular disease of the heart, or dyspncea from any cause 
should be given chloroform very guardedly or not at all. 

How would you anaesthetize a foot for a painful operation? 

By injecting one drachm of a 4 per cent, solution of cocaine 
hydrochlorate over each plantar nerve at the point where high 
plantar neurectomy is performed. Observe antiseptic precautions 
in injecting. 

Describe briefly a quick and satisfactory method of sterilizing your 
hands and instruments. 

If the hands are cleansed thoroughly with soap, water and a 
scrubbing brush, then immersed for five minutes in a 4 per cent, 
solution of potassium permanganate and, finally, in a 10 per cent, 
solution of oxalic acid until the stain of the permanganate of potash 
disappears, they will be perfectly sterile. The oxalic acid should 
be rinsed off with sterile water. 

Instruments may be sterilized by placing in boiling water for 
fifteen minutes. 



OBSTETRICS* 

Obstetrical Anatomy 

Name the soft organs concerned in obstetric anatomy. 
Ovaries, uterus, vagina, vulva and mammae. 

What is the pelvis? Name the functions of the pelvis. How many 
centres of ossification appear in its early formation? 

The pelvis is a bony framework at the posterior extremity of the 
trunk, supporting the spinal column and resting upon the posterior 
extremities. It contains, sustains and protects a portion of the 
genito-urinary apparatus, as well as the terminal portion of the 
alimentary canal. It constitutes a most important fulcrum or fixed 
point in various muscular movements and supplies a passageway for 
the foetus during the act of parturition. 

Five centres of ossification appear in each half in its early for- 
mation; one for each of the three bones and two complementary 
centres, one for the anterior spinous process and spine of the ileum, 
the other for the ischial tuberosity. 

Make a drawing to show the normal position of the generative organs 
of the mare. Show also the kidney, the bladder and the 
rectum. •[• 

State how the bones of the pelvis of the mare differ from those of (a) 
the cow, (b) the sheep, (c) the goat, (d) the bitch, (e) the 
cat. 

(a) The pelvis of the cow is longer and less vertical than in the 
mare. Because of the greater curvature of the ischiopubie sym- 
physis, the floor is concave. The pelvis of the cow is more cylindrical 
and less conical than that of the mare. 

(b) and (c) The pelvis of the sheep and of the goat is about the 
same as in the cow, except, of course, in size. The symphysis is 
nearly rectilinear in its direction, and it ossifies at a very much 
later period than in the cow or mare. 

(d) and (e) The marked angle formed by the sacrum and the 
lumbar vertebrae diminishes the inlet of the pelvis. The direction 
of the symphysis is rectilinear and the pelvic cavity is nearly 
cylindrical. 

* Unless otherwise stated all questions relate to the horse. 

t There axe no illustrations in this book, but this drawing would seem com- 
paratively simple. 

259 



260 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

State the difference between the pelvis of the sheep and that of the cow. 
Difference is mainly in size. The coxae of the sheep are more 
horizontal and proportionately longer than in the ox. 

Give approximately the supero-inferior and the transverse diameters 
of the bony pelvis of the cow. 

Inlet. Outlet. 

Supero-inferior 8 to 10 inches. 9 inches. 

Transverse 7 inches. 7 inches. 

Name the different articulations of the pelvis. 

One sacrolumbar, two sacro-iliac, one ischiopubic symphysis, 
and one sacrococcygeal. 

Name the ligaments connecting the last lumbar vertebrae with the 
sacrum and the pelvis. 
Common inferior vertebral, supradorsolumbar, interspinous, 
interlamellar, and capsular. 

Describe (a) the iliosacral ligaments, (b) the sacrosciatic ligament. 

(a) The superior iliosacral ligament is a thick and short cord 
which arises from the internal angle of the ileum and passes back- 
ward to be fixed to the sacral spine where it becomes confounded 
with the supraspinous, dorsolumbar ligament. The inferior ilio- 
sacral ligament is attached by its anterior margin to the upper half 
of the sciatic border and the internal angle of the ileum. Its inferior 
margin is inserted into the rugged lip on the lateral border of the 
sacrum. Its posterior border is united to the aponeurosis covering 
the coccygeal muscles, and its external face is in contact with the 
gluteus magnus and long vastus muscles. The internal face lies 
against the lateral sacrococcygeal muscle. 

(b) This is a large membranous ligament situated on the side 
of the pelvis between the sacrum and the coxa. It is irregularly 
quadrilateral, having four borders. The superior border is attached 
to the lateral rugged lateral ridge of the sacrum; the inferior is 
fixed to the supracotyloid ridge and ischial tuberosity ; the anterior 
aids in forming the great sciatic notch, and the posterior is con- 
founded with the coccygeal aponeurosis. Its internal face is covered 
with peritoneum. This ligament affords a large area for muscular 
insertion as well as serving a means for enclosing the pelvic cavity. 

Where is the ischial notch? What vessels and nerves pass through it? 

The ischial notch lies between and is formed by the postero- 
internal borders of the two ischii as they join at the symphysis. 
The artery of the bulb in the male, the perineal artery and the 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 261 

artery of the clitoris in the female, all being branches of the internal 
pudic artery, pass through the ischial notch, as does the pudic nerve. 

Describe the structure of the vulva. 

The vulva lies immediately beneath the anus and opens exter- 
nally by means of a vertically elongated slit, bounded by two lips 
(labia vulvae) which meet above and below to form the superior and 
inferior commissures. It has two groups of muscles which are 
chiefly circular and are termed anterior and posterior constrictors. 
The vulva is lined with mucous membrane, continuous with that of 
the bladder and vagina. Within the vulvar cavity, about four inches 
from the exterior and lying on its floor, is the meatus urinarius, the 
terminal opening of the urethral canal. In the inferior is the clitoris, 
an erectile organ two or three inches in length, composed chiefly 
of erectile tissue. 

Describe the mucous membrane of the vulva and state what kind of 
epithelium covers it. 
It is continuous with that of the vagina and bladder and is 
rosy-red in color. Near the free border of the labia, it often shows 
black pigment patches. It contains a great number of mucous fol- 
licles and sebaceous glands. The epithelium lining the vulva is of 
stratified pavement type. 

Give the anatomy of the uterus. 

The uterus is a musculomembranous sac, situated in the sublum- 
bar and pelvic regions of the abdominal cavity. It is related above 
to the rectum; below, with the bladder; anteriorly and laterally, 
with intestines, and behind, with the vagina. 

It presents for study a base and two cornua. The base is con- 
stricted posteriorly to form the cervix (or neck) and communicates 
with the vagina through a circular opening, the os. The base is 
continuous with the two cornua, right and left. The cornua have 
a superior or convex and an inferior or concave curvature, a base 
continuous with the uterus, and a summit continuous with the 
oviducts. 

The uterus is supported by two broad ligaments which descend 
from the sublumbar region to the sides of the uterus and cornua, 
and envelop the ovaries and their ducts; two rudimentary, round 
ligaments running from the sides of the uterus to the beginning of 
the inguinal canal. 

The uterus is made up of three coats, an outer serous, derived 
from the peritoneum; a middle, muscular; and an inner, mucous. 



262 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Blood is supplied to the organ by the utero-ovarian and uterine 
arteries, and it is innervated by branches from the mesenteric and 
pelvic plexuses. 

Describe the uterus of the bitch. 

The body of the uterus is short, but the cornua are very long 
and folded, and float amongst the intestinal convolutions. Its cervix 
projects into the vagina. The mucous membrane is very loose and 
gathered into folds. The muscular coat is well developed and 
is covered externally with peritoneum. 

Give the blood and nerve supply of the uterus. 

Uterine and utero-ovarian arteries. Innervated by branches 
from the small mesenteric and pelvic plexuses. 

Describe the ligaments of the uterus. What are the functions of these 
ligaments? 

The broad ligaments, two in number, are irregularly triangular 
in shape, and are more developed before than behind. They descend 
from the sublumbar region to be attached by their inferior border 
to the sides of the upper face of the body of the uterus and the 
small curvature of the cornua. They sustain the Fallopian tubes 
and ovaries. These ligaments are close to each other posteriorly in 
the region of the cervix but separate anteriorly like the branches of 
the letter V. They suspend the uterus in the sublumbar region. 

The round ligaments, two in number, outside of the broad liga- 
ments, contain in their folds a small thin muscle. These ligaments 
run from the sides of the uterus to the beginning of the inguinal 
canal. Their function is to support and retain the uterus in its 
proper position. 

Describe the glands of the uterus and give their functions. 

They are mucous glands and are designated simple and cylin- 
drical. The former, most numerous near the cervix, secrete the pecu- 
liar transparent mucous found there. The cylindrical, uterine or 
utricular glands are closely situated and are often twisted in a spiral 
fashion. They resemble other mucous glands with spheroidal epi- 
thelium in the bottom of the tube and columnar cells in their ducts. 

Describe an ovary. 

A small ovoid body, situated in the sublumbar region, with a deep 
notch or hilus on its upper surface which receives the oviduct. It 
is attached by the ovarian ligament to the uterus and supported by 
the broad ligament. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 263 

It is covered by a serous coat except at the hilus. Underneath 
this coat is a strong fibrous coat and beneath this coat is the ovarian 
tissue proper. The latter is hard and grayish-red and is divided 
into an external cortical and an internal medullary portion. The 
cortex is made up of connective tissue and holds large numbers of 
Graafian vesicles or ovisacs which contain the ova. The medulla 
is red and spongy and is composed of connective tissue which is 
richly supplied with blood-vessels. The ovary receives its blood 
from the utero-ovarian artery and is innervated by a branch from 
the mesenteric plexus. 

State how the ovaries of the mare differ from those of (a) the cow, (b) 
the sheep, (c) the goat, (d) the pig, (e) the bitch, (f) the cat. 

(a) Much smaller than in the mare, but are identical in form 
and structure. See answer to preceding question. 

(b) and (c) Same remark applies here as given in (a). 

(d) The ovary is lobulated in the pig. 

(e) and (f) Slightly lobulated in aspect. 

Describe the mammary gland. 

The mammary gland consists of two glandular bodies situated in 
the posterior and inferior abdominal region. They are hemispherical 
in shape and terminate below in a small prominence, the teat. Ex- 
ternally, they are covered with skin, beneath which is a fibrous coat 
which sends prolongations into the interior of the gland. The 
glandular tissue contains acini which open into lactiferous ducts. 
These ducts unite and form canals which, in turn, form two, three 
or four sinuses that open by several canals on the teat. The external 
pudic artery supplies the gland with blood and innervation is 
received from the first pair of lumbar nerves. 

Describe the mammary glands of the bitch. 

These are ten in number, arranged in two rows of five each, 
and extend from the inguinal region to below the chest. They have 
no galactiferous reservoirs and the lactiferous ducts unite directly 
into a variable number of canals that pass through the teat to pierce 
its extremity by from ^ye to ten orifices. 

Describe the vesiculae seminales and give their function. 

The vesiculae seminales are two oval pouches, situated above 
the neck of the bladder, and having a body and an anterior and 
posterior extremity. The latter is tapering and unites with the vas 
deferens to form the ejaculatory duct. The anterior extremity forms 
a rounded cul-de-sac partially covered with peritoneum. The walls 



264 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

are composed of three membranes : an internal, mucous ; a middle, 
muscular ; and an external, fibrous. The function of these bodies is 
to store semen for the copulatory act. They also secrete mucus which 
tends to dilute the semen much the same as the secretion from the 
prostate and Cowper's glands. 

Are the vesiculae seminales found in all the domestic animals? Ex- 
plain. 
No. They are not found in the dog and cat. 

Physiology 

State the four chief functions of the generative system. 

Copulation, impregnation, fetation and parturition. 

Describe the Fallopian tubes and state their function. 

The Fallopian tubes, or oviducts, are two small cylindrical flex- 
uous canals, about ten inches long, one of which is lodged in each 
broad ligament. They extend in a tortuous manner from the uterine 
cornua to the ovaries. The calibre of their canal is very small at 
the uterine extremity, scarcely admitting a hair but it enlarges at 
the ovarian end where it terminates in a pavilion. The pavilion 
is fixed to the external side of the ovary and opens into the peritoneal 
cavity. The function of these tubes is to convey the ova from the 
ovaries to the uterus and spermatozoa to the ovary. 

State what takes place in the ovary during the period of menstruation. 
Give the reason for the pitted appearance of the ovaries in 
old age. 
During menstruation there is an increased blood supply to the 
ovary. A certain Graafian vesicle, or vesicles, according to the 
species, becomes more voluminous than the others, raises the envelop- 
ing membrane of that body and projects on the surface. Around this 
vesicle the blood-vessels enlarge, and effusion takes place; the cap- 
sule distends and gives way, allowing the ova to escape. 

The pitted appearance of the ovaries in old age is due to repeated 
rupturing of Graafian vesicles and the shrinkings and cicatrizations 
of the same. 

Define fecundation, abortion, eutocia, dystocia. 

Fecundation is the fertilization or impregnation of the ovum, 
which occurs when it is reached by the spermatozoon. 
Abortion is the expulsion of a foetus before it is viable. 
Eutocia is a normal parturition. 
Dystocia is an abnormal, painful, or slow parturition. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 265 

Define the corpus luteum. Describe the changes in the ovary after 
fecundation. 

The corpus luteum, or ** yellow body," is a yellow mass in the 
ovary in the place of an ovisac which has discharged its ovum. If 
the ovum has been impregnated, the corpus luteum grows and lasts 
for several months, usually throughout pregnancy. If impregnation 
has not taken place, the corpus luteum degenerates and shrinks. 

After fecundation of the ovum, segmentation occurs. The ovum 
divides into halves, each half subdivides, etc., forming a spherical 
mass known as the morula. 

Define (a) a true corpus luteum, (b) a false corpus luteum. 

If the ovum has been impregnated, the corpus luteum grows and 
lasts for several months and is called a ' * true corpus luteum. ' ' If 
impregnation has not taken place, it degenerates and shrinks and is 
called a *' false corpus luteum." 

Describe the corpus luteum in the cow and the sow. 

See preceding answers. The ovisac is filled with lymph and 
blood, projects beyond the ovarian surface, and is deep yellow in 
color in the cow, and a yellowish-brown color in the sow. 

Give the cause of menstruation. 

Not definitely known. It is thought to be due to the shedding 
of the epithelium of the mucous membrane of the uterus. This ex- 
poses the tunic of the capillaries, causing them to rupture because 
of their distended condition. 

Is the menstrual flow independent of the influence of the ovaries? 
Explain. 

No. There is a close bond of sympathy between the ovaries and 
the uterus, which defies explanation. It is well known that, after 
removal of the ovaries, menstruation ceases to occur. 

Define embryology, embryotomy, hydrocephalus. 

Embryology is the science which treats of the development of the 
embryo. 

Embryotomy refers to the cutting up of a foetus to facilitate 
delivery. 

Hydrocephalus is a fluid effusion within the cranium. 

Name the female generative organs and state the function of each. 
Ovaries: generate ova. 

Oviducts : serve to convey the ova from the ovaries to the uterus 
and spermatozoa to the ovary. 



266 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Uterus: place of nourishment and development of tlie embryo 
and foetus. 

Vagina: copulatory organ and passageway for the foetus dur- 
ing parturition. 

Vulva : same as the vagina. 

Mammae: supply nourishment to new-born. 

Define orgasm. 

Orgasm is the crisis of venereal excitement, that is, the time of 
ejaculation of semen. 

State the organic modifications the genital organs undergo after labor. 
The uterus reduces in volume and weight by the oxidation, de- 
generation and absorption of the cells of the muscular fibres. The 
mucous membrane, which has been enormously thickened, under- 
goes fatty degeneration and modification until the uterine interior 
presents the appearance it possessed before impregnation. The 
cervix contracts, closes and regains its former shape. 

Describe the difference between the maternal and the foetal cotyledons. 

The maternal cotyledons are dark-yellow in color and their 
surface is covered with crypts. The fetal cotyledons are bright-red 
in color and on their surface is a multitude of long, branched villi 
which are received into the depressions of the maternal cotyledons. 

Are spermatozoa always found in the semen? Explain. 

No. They are usually absent in cases of cryptorchidism, testicular 
tumors, inflammations and degenerations of the testicles. Hydro- 
cele may prevent the formation of spermatozoa. The following 
conditions — debilitating diseases, overwork and excessive sexual use, 
individually or jointly — lessen the abundance of the male fertilizing 
element and in some cases may lead to a complete absence of same. 

Is the vagina strictly a generative organ? Explain. 

Yes. Because it serves as an organ of copulation and as a passage- 
way for the foetus only. 

Give the meaning of each of the following terms: uniparous, multi- 
parous, primiparous, pluriparous. 
Uniparous refers to animals which bring forth but one offspring 
at birth, as the mare and cow. 

Multiparous refers to animals which bring forth several offspring 
at one time, as the bitch and cat. 

Primiparous : Bearing, or having borne but one offspring. 
Pluriparous : Same as multiparous. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 267 

What is the influence of the pregnant uterus on the neighboring 

organs ? 

The immense volume of the pregnant uterus occasionally disturbs 

the neighboring viscera as shown by colic, tympanites, constipation, 

oedema, coughing and paraplegia. Pressure on the sciatic nerve is 

shown by cramp of the posterior limbs. 

How is the period of menstruation characterized in (a) the cow, (b) 
the sow, (c) the bitch, and (d) the cat? 

(a) By nervous excitement, restlessness, bellowing and mounting 
other animals of its species. There is an increased secretion of 
mucus from the vulva and, toward the end of the period, blood-clots 
or a slight blood-stained discharge. The period lasts about 2 days 
and reappears every 21 days unless impregnation occurs. 

(b) The sow manifests rut by restlessness, rooting, squealing, 
swelling of the vulva and a sanguinolent discharge therefrom. The 
appetite is impaired and she seeks the company of the opposite sex. 
The period lasts from 2 to 5 days and reappears in 15 to 30 days, 
but usually every month. 

(c) By nervous excitement, restlessness, wandering away from 
home, seeking males, swelling and turgidity of the vulva, frequent 
urination and a sanguinolent discharge. The appetite is capricious 
and thirst is increased. The period lasts from 2 to 3 weeks and 
appears twice a year (spring and autumn, as a rule). 

(d) By nervous excitement and an over-affectionate disposition. 
There is an uncontrollable desire to seek the opposite sex. Rest- 
lessness is a notable feature and the movements of rolling and 
otherwise betray the prevailing desires. The generative organs are 
more or less turgid and sensitive and the urogenital secretions are 
increased. This phenomenon appears 3 to 4 times a year. 

What is an emmenagogue ? Name two of the principal emmena- 
gogues. 
An emmenagogue is any agent which stimulates or favors the 
menstrual discharge. Ergot and rue are well known emmenagogues. 

Describe the secretions of the foetus. 

Mucus is secreted by the glands of the mouth, oesophagus and 
stomach. Bile is secreted by the liver, and emptied into the intes- 
tines where it is mixed with the fluid thrown out by the glands 
there, forming meconium. Urine is secreted by the kidneys, and 
the thjonus, thyroid, spleen and suprarenal glands are said to be 
active in fetal life. 



268 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Name the secretory glands that are active in fetal life. 
See answer to preceding question. 

State the duration of pregnancy in (a) the mare, (b) the cow, (c) the 
sow, (d) the bitch, (e) the ewe. 
(a) 330-340 days; (b) 270-280 days; (c) 115-120 days; (d) 
58-65 days; (e) 145-155 days. 

Trace the journey of the ovum from incipiency to the accomplishment 
of fertilization. 
After rupture of the Graafian vesicle, the ovum escapes and is 
conveyed into the Fallopian tube by means of the fimbriated extrem- 
ity of the same. It passes down the tube to the uterus where it is 
met by the spermatozoa. This meeting may take place in the 
oviduct but the ovum usually continues to descend to the uterus. 

Describe physiologically the impregnation of the ovum. 

The spermatozoa pass through the outer layer of the ovum 
(zona pellucida). The germinal vesicle, or nucleus of the ovum, 
disappears and a somewhat opaque, embryonal cell (pronucleus) 
succeeds. With the formation of the pronucleus, the vitellus becomes 
separated from the zona pellucida and begins to rotate therein. 
Then a segmentation of the embryonal cell into two portions occurs ; 
each of these two portions divide into two, etc. This division and 
subdivision continue for a short time (2 or 3 days) until the stage 
of morula is reached. At this stage the mass is still spherical, is 
surrounded by the vitelline membrane and the zona pellucida, and 
contains the mass of cells resulting from the repeated divisions 
before mentioned. After this the mass enlarges, changes shape, and 
the germinal layers form. 

Give the composition of cow's milk. 

Water 87 

Solids 13 

Albumin 3.30 

Fat 4.00 

Lactose 4.95 

Salts 75 

State the difference in the composition of the milk of the mare and 
that of the cow. 
See answer to preceding question. 

Mare's milk contains more water and sugar but less fat and 
albumen than cow's milk. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS " 269 

Average composition of mare *s milk is as follows : 

Water 91.8 

Solids 8.2 

Albumen 2.6 

Fat 6 

Lactose 4.7 

Salts 3 

What is colostrum? Give the composition of colostrum. 

Colostrum is the first fluid secreted by the mammary gland after 
delivery. Its average composition is as follows : 

Water 75.8 

Albumen and casein 15.0 

Fat 2.6 

Lactose 3.6 

Salts 3.0 



Pregnancy 

Describe the physiologic and anatomic modifications that the uterus 
undergoes while the foetus is developing. 

The uterus assumes a somewhat oblong or globular form. Its 
mucosa becomes redder, thicker, more pulpy and vascular. The 
serous coat also hypertrophies and the fibres of the muscular coat 
increase in number and volume. The uterus, at this time, is more 
sensitive to nervous stimuli. The increase in volume and weight 
causes it to descend and rest upon the abdominal floor. The os 
uteri is firmly closed by the contraction of the circular muscular 
fibres of the cervix and is sealed with an albuminoid clot. As par- 
turition time approaches, the os relaxes and, when labor begins, 
dilates widely. 

State what changes take place in the generative organs of the female 
after conception. 

See answer to preceding question. 

In addition to the changes in the uterus, a true corpus luteum 
forms in the ovaries, and the mammary glands become activated. 

What precautions should be taken in regard to the care and food of 

pregnant animals? 

They should be regularly exercised and well fed on easily 

digested nutritive food which does not constipate. Plenty of pure 

water is essential. They should be well groomed and provided 

with clean and commodious quarters, especially as parturition 



270 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

approaches. Harsh or cruel treatment and surgical operations 
should be avoided if possible. Avoid, also, strong medicines such 
as drastic purgatives, powerful narcotics, etc. The milking period 
of cows should be limited to seven or seven and one-half months, 
to allow the foetus more nutritive material for its perfect develop- 
ment. 

Name the principal signs o£ pregnancy. 

Absence of estrum, enlargement of abdomen, enlargement of the 
mammse, feeling of the foetus per rectum, per vaginam, or through 
the abdominal wall, auscultation of the fetal heart-beat, and observ- 
ing the movements of the living foetus. 

Describe (a) ovarian gestation, (b) tubal gestation, (c) abdominal 
gestation. 

(a) Ovarian gestation is rare. Apparently it is due to a failure 
of the ovum to escape when the ovisac ruptures. The spermatozoa 
passes up the oviduct and impregnates the ovum which then pro- 
ceeds to develop, as in normal gestation. 

(b) Impregnation occurs in the oviduct. The ovum becomes 
attached to the walls of the duct and development proceeds. When 
the foetus attains a sufficient size, the oviduct ruptures and fatal 
hemorrhage may ensue, or the foetus may become attached to or 
imbedded in the peritoneal surface, and continue to develop. 

(c) Abdominal gestation may follow rupture of the gravid 
uterus or the ovum may fall into the abdominal cavity, following 
rupture of the ovisac, and become impregnated there. The foetus 
becomes attached to the abdominal walls or some of the viscera and 
the fetal membranes closely invest the fetal body. 

Describe extra-uterine pregnancy. 

Extra-uterine pregnancy is the existence, for a greater or less 
period of time, of a living ovum outside of the uterine cavity, but 
within the abdominal cavity. (See answer to preceding question.) 

How are the varieties of extra-uterine pregnancy commonly desig- 
nated ? 
Ovarian, tubal and abdominal gestation. (See explanation 
above.) 

What are the effects of indigestion on pregnant animals? 

Tympanites, constipation and diarrhoea usually accompany in- 
digestion. These conditions tend to produce abortion through press- 
ure, straining and reflexly, respectively. Furthermore, indigestion 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 271 

causes inanition and thereby prevents the mother from properly 
nourishing the foetus. 

Give the function and describe the early development of the placenta. 

The function of the placenta is to establish communication be- 
tween the mother and foetus by means of the umbilical cord. 

In the mulberry stage (stage of morula), the zona radiata throws 
out tufts, the primordial chorion, which unite with the uterine 
mucosa. This zone soon becomes attenuated and disappears while 
the blastoderm enlarges within it. But this primitive chorion is not 
permanent, it is replaced by another, similar, but more efficient 
structure. 

From the surface of the outer layer of the blastoderm, tufts or 
villi grow out to extend into the uterine mucosa. Through these 
villi, there is an exchange of nutritive material and waste products 
between mother and foetus. This is later supplanted by a permanent 
attachment, formed by the tufts of the allantois which grow out 
through the amniotic chorion to gain an intimate relation with the 
blood-vessels of the uterus. 

Describe the phenomena of nutrition in the foetus. 

Before the placenta is formed, the ovum is bathed with an albu- 
minoid substance which nourishes it during early development. 
Later with the development of the placenta, which brings the capil- 
lary systems of the mother and foetus into the closest relationship, 
nourishment passes to the foetus by osmosis. 

Define (a) zonary placenta, (b) diffuse placenta, (c) cotyledonary 
placenta. 

(a) A placenta which is band-like in form. In the bitch and 
cat, the placenta forms a thick, annular band, or zone, about one 
and one-half inches wide, passing around the middle of the chorion. 

(b) A diffuse placenta is one in which the chorionic villse are 
diffused over the entire surface of the chorion. Seen in the mare 
and sow. 

(c) A placenta in which the villi are restricted to certain areas 
(80 to 100 in number) called cotyledons. Seen in cows and sheep. 

Mention the animals in which cotyledons cure found. 
Cow, sheep and goat. 

Describe the umbilical cord and state its function. 

The umbilical cord is a collection of vessels which extends from 
the placenta to the fetal umbilicus. It is about 35 inches long in 
the mare and 15 inches in the cow. It is formed by the allantoic 



272 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

stalk, surrounded by the amnion, and includes the remnant of the 
vitelline duct. For convenience of description, it may be divided 
into an amniotic and an allantoic portion. The amniotic, the longer, 
extends from the umbilicus of the foetus, through the amniotic cavity, 
to open into the cavity of the allantois. It contains the following 
structures : the amnion, the two umbilical arteries, the two umbilical 
veins which are sometimes fused into a single vessel, the urachus, 
and the vestiges of the vitelline duct, besides Whartonian gelatin. 

The allantoic portion consists, for the most part, of the mass of 
umbilical vessels; other structures found in it are the remnants of 
the vitelline duct, and Whartonian gelatin. 

The umbilical cord forms a bond of communication between the 
foetus and the placenta. 

Describe the position of the foetus in multiple pregnancy. 

Each foetus may have its own amnion and chorion, or each may 
have its own amnion, but the same chorion. Occasionally, in twin 
pregnancies, one foetus is more or less enclosed within the body of 
the other. 

In ruminants (cow and ewe) each of the twin foetuses usually 
occupies one cornua of the uterus and presents with the head toward 
the OS uteri ; although occasionally they present alternately, that is, 
one anteriorly and the other posteriorly. 

What is the liquor amnii? Give its functions in pregnancy and during 
labor. 

The liquor amnii is an albuminous alkaline fluid, found in the 
amniotic sac, in which the foetus is suspended. It contains about 
99 per cent, of water, as well as albumin, sugar, urea, and other 
urinary products, also meconium. The amount of the fluid in the 
mare and cow varies from 5 to 6 litres. 

During pregnancy, it is useful in: 1. Preserving an equable 
temperature for the foetus. 2. Protecting the skin of the foetus. 
3. Favoring movements of the foetus by equalizing pressure. 4. Pre- 
venting injuries of the foetus from external movements. 5. Protect- 
ing the mother from injury by fetal movements. 

During labor, it protrudes the membranes and dilates the os uteri, 
protects the foetus from violent uterine contractions, and lubricates 
the vagina, thus facilitating passage of the foetus through it. 

Mention the four stages in the process of sexual generation. 
Copulation, fecundation, gestation, and parturition. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 273 

Describe the operation of artificial impregnation. 

This operation consists of transferring semen from the vagina 
of a female, with which the male has recently copulated, to the vagina 
of another female. No special apparatus is necessary, in fact, any 
ordinary sterile syringe, or the hand will answer the purpose. 

Cleanliness must be observed. Allow the male to serve a female 
and, promptly afterward, withdraw some of the semen into the 
syringe and inject it into the cervical canal of the second female. 

Describe an impregnator and state how impregnation is accomplished 
by its use. 
An impregnator is an instrument designed to keep open the os 
uteri during copulation and thus insure a direct discharge of the 
semen into the uterus. It consists of a hollow, soft-rubber tube, 
3 to 4 inches in length. It is constricted in the middle portion and 
flanged at the posterior end to prevent it from falling into the 
uterus. Those who advocate its use do so with the belief that sterility 
in most cases is due to occlusion of the os. Intelligent breeders 
ignore the instrument. Prof. Williams, in his ''Veterinary Ob- 
stetrics, ' ' regards the use of impregnators as " a harmless diversion 
which ordinarily will not prevent conception. ' ' 

Mention the changes in position of the neighboring organs during the 
development of the uterus in pregnancy. 
The vagina is drawn forward except in the last stages of gesta- 
tion, when the foetus protrudes into the pelvic cavity. The stomach 
is pushed to the left and the intestines and liver are compressed; 
the diaphragm is pushed forward and the abdomen becomes en- 
larged, rounded and pendulent. 

State the function of the liver in fetal life. 

It serves as a blood-forming and blood-purifying organ. 

What is the blastoderm ? How are its membranes divided ? 

The blastoderm is the delicate membrane which lines the zona 
pellucida of the impregnated ovum. Its membranes are divided into 
hypoblast, mesoblad and epiblast. 

What do the different layers of the blastoderm form? 

The hypoblast forms the epithelium of the alimentary canal and 
of the organs connected with it, and that of the air-passages. 

The mesoblast develops into the skin and connective-tissue struc- 
tures, the bones, muscles, organs of excretion, and internal genitals. 

From the epiblast are developed the epidermis and epidermic 
tissues, such as nails, hair and glands of the skin, the nervous sys- 
18 



274 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

tern, the external sense-organs, as ear, eye, etc., and the mucous 
membrane of the mouth and anus. 

What changes take place in the blood o£ pregnant animals? 

There is said to be an increase in the volume of the blood in the 
body of a pregnant animal, but a decrease in its corpuscles and solid 
constituents. Quite recently, investigators have proven the pres- 
ence of a certain substance in the serum of pregnant animals which is 
of value in diagnosing pregnancy. 

Name the envelopes surrounding the foetus and describe each. 

1. Chorion, the outer envelope, is a vast, membranous, closed 
sac. It being moulded upon the uterine wall, resembles the uterus 
in form, having a body and two cornua. The cornua are unequal in 
size, the one in which the fcBtus lies being the largest. The external 
surface of the chorion is studded with small, red tubercles, formed 
by the placental villous tufts which join it to the internal surface of 
the uterus. The internal surface is lined by the external layer of the 
allantois, except at the umbilical cord, where there exists a Mnd of 
conical inf undibulum, occupied by the umbilical vesicle. It is united 
to the allantois by a layer of mucous connective tissue. 

The chorion not only plays a mechanical part in protecting the 
fcetus and supporting the placental blood-vessels, but it holds cer- 
tain nutritive materials. 

2. The amnion, the second sac enveloping the foetus, is a thin, 
transparent membrane. It floats freely in the interior of the chorion, 
but is only united to it at one point through the medium of the 
umbilical cord. It is ovoid in shape and contains the foetus which 
is attached to its inner face by the vessels of the umbilical cord. 
In the early embryonic stage, it closely envelops the embryo but, 
later, it is distended with fluid (liquor amnii) and is thus separated 
from the foetus. The smooth, internal face secretes the liquor amnii 
which bathes the fcetus and serves important functions. The exter- 
nal face is closely adherent to the inner layer of the allantois. 

The amnion is made up of three layers : a very thin, connective- 
tissue membrane that adheres to the allantois; a membrane-proper 
which is made up of connective tissue and some muscular fibres ; and 
an epithelial layer which lines the latter. 

3. The allantois is a thin membrane which lines the inner face 
of the chorion, and is reflected around the insertion of the umbilical 
cord to be spread over the outer face of the amnion. By so doing, 
it transforms the chorionic sac into a kind of serous cavity with the 
amniotic sac enclosed within it. The allantoic cavity communicates 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 275 

with the fetal bladder by means of the urachus. The striieture of the 
allantois is slightly fibrous with an epithelial layer. 

Describe the development of the skin of the foetus. 

The skin is developed from the middle and outer layers of the 
blastoderm (the mesoblast and epiblast). From the mesoblast, the 
skin-proper, or derma, is formed, and from the epiblast, the epi- 
dermis and epidermic tissues, such as the nails, hair, sudoriparous 
and sebaceous glands are formed. Blood-vessels are apparent in 
the derma as early as the third month. The horny and mucous 
layers of the epidermis are distinguished soon after. As the foetus 
increases in volume, the epidermis exfoliates and its debris is found 
in the liquor amnii. Hair is developed in the epidermic laminae 
which are prolonged into the substance of the derma. It is seen on 
the eyebrows, lips and the joints of the limbs early in fetal life, 
and by the sixth or seventh month covers the body. 

Trace the development of the nervous system. 

The first trace of the central nervous system, the neuraxis, is 
found in the primitive groove, resulting from an invagination of the 
thickened ectoderm. The groove deepens and the neural folds which 
border it increase in prominence until they fuse together above, 
making a closed canal, lined by ciliated epiblastic cells. This canal 
persists throughout the animal's life as the central canal in the 
spinal cord, and as the ventricles of the brain. The deeper epiblastic 
cells in the walls of the canal develop into the nerve-cells of the 
cerebrospinal axis. The anterior part of the canal shows three 
successive dilatations which ultimately become the various divisions 
of the brain. The spinal motor nerves arise from the cord and 
the sensory branches appear to be developed from the spinal ganglia 
which are separately formed. 

Describe the situation of the pregnant uterus in the mare and cow. 

The pregnant uterus occupies the floor of the abdominal cavity. 
In the mare, it is displaced somewhat to the left by the pelvic 
flexure of the colon and passes beneath the latter to the left of the 
median line until it reaches the diaphragm. In the cow, the rumen 
displaces the pregnant uterus, causing it to pass downward and 
slightly to the right of the median line to reach the diaphragm. 

Describe the position of the foetus in the ninth or tenth month of preg- 
nancy. 

The head is directed backward and ventrally in such a manner 
that the lower jaw is in contact with the throat, and the mouth 
touches the sternal region. The neck lies against the maternal 



276 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

sacrum. The fore limbs are flexed in such, a manner that the knees 
are against the middle of the head and the feet, the umbilicus. The 
hind limbs are flexed under the body and the pelvic portion of the 
foetus is in the bottom of the uterus, near the stomach. 

Trace the growth of the urinary organs. 

The kidneys arise from the Wolffian bodies. These are glandular 
bodies which appear very early in embryonic life, one on each side 
of the vertebras and extend from the heart to the pelvis. Each 
empties through a duct into the cloaca. These bodies are perhaps 
more concerned in the development of the sexual organs than the 
urinary. At any rate, early in embryonic life there appears near 
the beginning of each Wolffian duct, an outgrowth, or cul-de-sac, 
which forms the pelvis of the kidney. Prom the walls of these sacs, 
a number of branching tubules arise to become the urinary tubules 
and thus complete the kidney. The posterior part of these sacs 
become the ureters which empty into the cloaca. The bladder is 
derived from a dilatation of the abdominal portion of the allantois. 
Posteriorly the allantois is constricted to form the urethra. The 
extrapelvic portion of the latter is formed by the closing of the 
genital furrow of the penis. 

Abortion 

What is meant (a) by abortion, (b) by premature birth? 

(a) The expulsion of a foetus from the uterus before it is suffi- 
ciently developed to live. 

(b) The expulsion of a foetus from the uterus before the proper 
time but in a viable condition. 

Give the symptoms of abortion. 

In many cases there are no premonitory symptoms and often the 
first evidence is the presence of the foetus and its membranes. In 
other cases, warning is given by the swollen vulva and its muco- 
purulent discharge together with enlargement of the mammae. Fre- 
quently, there is a secretion of milk for days and even weeks before 
abortion occurs. The act of abortion is brief and is accompanied 
by labor pains as in normal birth. Por several days following, a 
mucous discharge, tinged with blood and often containing particles 
of pus and after-birth, is observed. Unless complications ensue, 
the mother seems to be but little inconvenienced. 

Mention some of the causes of non-contagious abortion. 

Mechanical injuries, severe hemorrhage, castration, drugs, cer- 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 277 

tain infectious diseases, such as foot-and-mouth disease, hog cholera, 
etc. 

Discuss the etiology of infectious abortion in cows. Describe briefly 
the course and symptoms of infectious abortion. 

(There are many conflicting opinions on all phases of this 
disease.) 

Infectious abortion in cows is due to a short bacillus (bacillus 
of Bang) which is carried from cow to cow by the bull, although 
other means of transmission are recognized. Entering the uterus, 
at the time of copulation, or later, it produces a catarrhal endo- 
metritis with a fibrinous exudate which causes a separation of the 
placenta from the uterine wall and abortion follows. Some authori- 
ties think the infection enters by way of the digestive tract and 
udder, and is carried by the blood to the cotyledons. In many cases 
the infection remains in the system from a previous abortion. 

In the majority of cases abortion occurs at about the fourth to 
sixth month of pregnancy. It may occur much earlier or very near 
the end of gestation. The foetus is usually born dead, or, if alive, it 
very rarely survives. A few days before abortion occurs, a yellow, 
or reddish-tinged mucopurulent discharge is seen to escape from 
the vulva. The latter becomes reddened and swollen. The milk 
secretion lessens and finally, with very little straining or apparent 
inconvenience, the foetus is expelled. In a great majority of cases, 
portions of the after-birth are retained and a mucopurulent, blood- 
tinged discharge follows for ten days or two weeks. The infection 
remains in the internal genital organs for several months, so it is 
quite common for the cow to abort a second time. After the second 
abortion, the infection seems to disappear, or at least the animal 
is immune to its effects. 

What methods should be employed in the control of an outbreak of 
infectious abortion in a herd of cows? 

Separate the infected from the non-infected. Burn aborted 
foetuses, after-births, and soiled bedding. Disinfect stalls and gut- 
ters. Irrigate the uterus of each aborting cow with a 1-1000 solu- 
tion of potassium permanganate. Wash the external genitals of all 
pregnant cows with the disinfectant. Separate attendants should 
be assigned to the two divisions of the herd. The sheath of the bull 
should be disinfected before and after copulation. A separate bull 
might be used for infected and non-infected cows. Precautions 
should be observed in introducing new animals into the herd. 



278 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Labor 

Define (a) presentation, (b) position. 

(a) The appearance of some particular part of the fetal body 
at the pelvic inlet during labor. 

(b) The situation of the foetus with respect to the mother at 
appearance of labor. 

Mention the normal presentations of the foetus in domestic animals. 
Anterior and posterior. 

Name the different positions of the foetus during labor. 

1. Longitudinal: 

A. Anterior presentation : 

(a) Dorsosacral position. 

(b) Right or left dorso-ilial position. 

(c) Dorsopubic position. 

B. Posterior presentation : 

(a) Dorsosacral position. 

(b) Right or left dorso-ilial position. 

(c) Dorsopubic position. 

2. Transverse. 

A. Dorsal presentation : 

(a) Right or left cephalo-ilial position. 

B. Ventral presentation : 

(a) Right or left cephalo-ilial position. 

What are the four principal presentations? 

Anterior, posterior, dorsal and ventral. 

What is the most favorable and most frequent presentation? 

Anterior presentation, dorsosacral position, with both forefeet 
and head presenting. 

Define (a) eutocia, (b) version, (c) rotation. 

(a) A safe, easy, or natural parturition. 

(b) The changing of a transverse into a longitudinal presen- 
tation. 

(c) The turning of a foetus upon its long axis. 

Name four of the most difficult presentations. 

1. Anterior presentation with both fore limbs retained. 

2. Transverse presentation. 

3. Breech presentation with complete retention of the posterior 
limbs. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 279 

4. Anterior presentation with forward extension of the hind 
limbs beneath the fetal body. 

Mention two different ways by which the cervix of the uterus may be 
dilated. 

1. Use of drugs, especially injections of cocaine or stovaine. 

2. Mechanical, either by manual or instrumental methods. 

Mention the signs and the different stages of parturition. 

1. Preliminary stage : Enlargement of mammae ; swelling of the 
vulva ; relaxation of the broad and sacrosciatic ligament. 

2. Dilation of the os uteri : Accompanied by restlessness, labor- 
pains and presentation of ' ' water-bag. ' ' 

3. Expulsion of foetus : Pains more severe and frequent ; strain- 
ing, rupture of ' ' water-bag ' ' and expulsion of foetus. 

4. Expulsion of the membranes. This may occur at birth or soon 
after. The uterus contracts and the mass comes away. 

Mention some of the causes of dystocia. 

Maternal: Pelvic constriction, uterine inertia, torsion of the 
uterus. 

Fetal: Excess in volume, monstrosities, multiparity, diseases, 
faulty presentation. 

Name (a) five maternal causes of dystocia, (b) five fetal causes of 
dystocia. 

(a) Pelvic constriction, uterine inertia, torsion of the uterus, 
uterine hernia, atresia of the cervix. 

(b) Hydrocephalus, wry-neck, emphysema, double monstrosities, 
faulty presentation. 

Name two pathologic conditions of the foetus that interfere with par- 
turition. State how each of these conditions may be over- 
come. 

1. Hydrocephalus. This consists of a distention of the lateral 
ventricles of the brain with lymph. In extreme cases, the cranium 
is distended to two and three times the normal size, and offers a 
serious obstacle to parturition. Dystocia due to this congenital 
defect is overcome by puncturing the tumor and breaking down the 
cranial bones with the chisel. 

2. Wry-neck. This deformity of the foetus is characterized by 
an abrupt deviation of the head and neck to one side. The cervical 
portion of the spinal column is bent and the muscles so contracted 
that the head is held rigidly in this abnormal position. 

To overcome the impediment which this condition offers, ampu- 



280 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

tate the head and neck by means of a chain-saw or otherwise, with- 
draw the severed member, and then proceed with the remaining por- 
tion as in normal parturition. 

How would you deliver an anterior presentation in a case of hydro- 
cephalus? 

See answer to preceding question. 

What are the disadvantages under which the veterinary obstetrist 
labors in case of dystocia? 
He is frequently hampered by being called after some unskilled 
persons have complicated matters or done irreparable injury to the 
mother and foetus by their crude tactics. Many times the quarters in 
which parturient animals are kept are poorly lighted, improperly 
ventilated and dirty. Plenty of clean, warm water is not always 
to be had. Lastly, the severe straining of such large animals as 
cows and mares is fatiguing to the arm of the operator and impedes 
his necessary manipulations to a great extent. 

Mention four different mechanical means for the extraction of the 
foetus. 
Cords, hooks, forceps, and halters. 

How may strong muscular contractions of the uterus be overcome in 

case of malpresentation in dystocia? 

Many methods have been tried, pressure on the loins, tying a 

rope tightly round the body, twitching the nose or ear, etc. The 

most humane and satisfactory way is the administration of a 

narcotic (opium, chloral hydrate, or, better still, chloroform). 

What are the indications for the use of ergot in labor and how should 
ergot be given? 
Ergot is used in case of uterine inertia when there is no mal- 
position of the foetus or mechanical obstruction to its passage. 
Very small doses should be given to increase the force of the uterine 
contractions without producing spasms of the organ or of the 
cervix. 

Under what conditions would you use a repeller for the removal of a 
calf? 
When the foetus, in a faulty position, has become wedged in the 
pelvic cavity or is approaching the inlet, it may be necessary to 
return it into the uterus to effect a proper presentation and position. 
Occasionally, when the foetus is presenting properly and is in a 
good position, it is advantageous to repel it in order to attach cords 
to some part of its body. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 281 

Give the method of delivering an anterior presentation (dorsosacral 
position) with the fore limbs retained. 
Repel foetus upward and backward, pass a cord around the 
radius, slide it down toward the carpus, correct the deviation and 
complete the delivery. If the head has passed beyond the vulva, 
decapitation may be advantageous before attempting repulsion. 
In some cases amputation of one limb and evisceration may be neces- 
sary to reduce the size of the foetus and facilitate delivery. 

Give a method of delivery of the cephalosacral position of the foetus. 

In this position, the foetus sits on the floor of the abdomen, the 
head directed forward and the withers toward the sacrolumbar 
region of the mother. That is, it sits up like a dog. By most authori- 
ties, this position is considered impossible because of its unstability. 
To effect delivery, version must be accomplished. The dorsal pre- 
sentation must be changed to an anterior or posterior. Version may 
be effected by intra-uterine injections of emollients such as flax- 
seed or slippery elm infusions. If this method fails, evisceration 
and detruncation of the foetus is the only course to follow. 

Describe a method of delivering a right cephalo-ilial position, dorso- 
lumbar presentation. 
The dystocia from this position is practically the same as in the 
cephalosacral position and the method of procedure is the same. 
(See answer to preceding question.) 

Describe the sterno-abdominal position of the foetus. 

This is more accurately termed "ventral transverse presenta- 
tion. ' ' The foetus presents with all of the feet in, or near, the pelvic 
inlet and the head retained. It lies upon its side, transverse to the 
long axis of the body of the mother with the head resting in the 
flank in the region of one or the other of the maternal ilia. Hence 
there are two possible positions, right cephalo-ilial and left cephalo- 
ilial. 

Describe Cesarean section in the mare and name some of the compli- 
cations that may arise in connection with this operation, 
Cesarean section refers to the delivery of a foetus by means of 
an incision through the abdominal and uterine walls. The mare 
should be placed under general angesthesia. Her forelegs should 
be drawn forward and the hind legs backward and securely fastened. 
The field of operation being thoroughly cleansed and disinfected, 
make an incision in the flank through the skin and muscles, extend- 
ing from the level of the external angle of the ilium downward about 



282 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

ten inches. The peritoneum is then incised and the uterus withdrawn 
through the opening. It should be laid on sterilized gauze which 
completely surrounds the wound. Next make an incision into the 
gravid uterus which will readily permit the extraction of the foetus 
within its membranes. Free the foetus from its coverings as soon 
as extracted ; suture the wound in the uterus by means of Lembert 's 
intestinal suture with silk. Close the abdominal wound with inter- 
rupted sutures, suturing the muscles and skin separately. Place 
patient in clean, comfortable quarters to recover from the anaesthesia. 

Complications to be feared following Cesarean section are: 
metritis, peritonitis, abscess at seat of incision, and adhesion of the 
abdominal organs to this part. Internal hemorrhage and collapse 
are to be guarded against. 

(Records fail to show where the life of a mare has been saved, 
but a living foetus is often brought forth by this operation.) 

Describe the operation of Cesarean section in multiparous animals. 

See answer to preceding question. In the sow, bitch, and cat, 
the incision can be made in the flank, although most operators prefer 
the median line. The technic is the same as in the mare. All the 
foetuses can be extracted through the one incision into the uterus. 
A body bandage should be applied after the operation. The prog- 
nosis is much more favorable than in the mare and cow. 

Describe the method of delivering a posterior presentation (lumbo- 
sacral position). 
Apply traction upon the two hind limbs and hasten delivery be- 
cause of the danger of asphyxiation of the foetus from compression 
of the cord against the pubic brim. This is considered a normal 
presentation by many authorities. Should the hind limbs be 
retained, the dystocia is a very difficult one to overcome. Attempt 
repulsion and correction of the deviation of the limbs. Forced 
extraction is employed by some obstetrists, but it is a barbarous 
and unsatisfactory procedure. Embryotomy should be employed, 
preferably intrafetal amputation of the two posterior limbs. 
Cesarean section is a last resort. 

Describe the method of delivery in deviation of both hind limbs, 
anterior presentation. 
This is one of the most difficult malpositions the obstetrist has 
to overcome. Repulsion and correction of the deviation should be 
attempted to increase the working space, but this is seldom success- 
ful. Remove one anterior limb and detruncate the foetus. Attach 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 283 

cord to and repel the posterior half. Deliver the anterior half first 
and then the posterior. 

Describe method of delivering extreme downward deviation of the 
head, anterior presentation. 

Attempt replacement of the head by seizing the muzzle or nostrils 
with the hand. If this fails, amputate one anterior limb, which 
then allows the head to be brought into position. Delivery in the 
normal way is then easily effected. 

What care should be given the dam after labor? 

Clean, comfortable quarters should be provided. Nourishing, 
succulent food should be freely given to insure an abundant milk 
secretion. Grass is the best diet for herbivora. The mother should 
be kept from hard labor for three or four days, and all undue dis- 
turbance should be avoided. If the labor is complicated by wounds 
of the genital organs, or otherwise, proper treatment should be 
given. Otherwise such interference with nature is contra-indicated. 
In case the after-birth is not expelled in the usual time allowed, 
means should be employed to remove same. 

Give the symptoms and the treatment of uterine inertia in the mare. 

The foetus presents normally and in a favorable position, but 
there is a deficiency of the expelling powers. The mother is usually 
weak, debilitated, and maintains a decubital attitude. 

Treatment consists of the administration of stimulants. Ergot 
is usually chosen. In addition, traction should be applied and 
delivery effected. 

Give the symptoms and treatment of torsion of the uterus. 

Torsion of the uterus is shown by severe expulsive efforts, colicky 
pains, and extreme uneasiness. If death of the foetus has occurred, 
metritis and peritonitis may be present. The diagnosis is confirmed 
by examination per vaginam when the hand encounters the spiral 
folds of the vaginal walls and os uteri. The prognosis is grave. 
Reduction of the twist is very difficult. It may be attempted in 
case of slight torsion by inserting the hand and arm into the uterus, 
grasping a limb of the foetus, and exerting force on same. If the 
torsion is severe, it is impossible to gain entrance into the uterus in 
this way. In this case, rolling of the mother in the direction of 
the twist is the logical treatment. With the hand in the vagina, the 
operator can assist by preventing the uterus from turning when the 
mother is rolled. These methods failing, laparatomy should be per- 
formed and the torsion reduced by the hand placed within the abdo- 
men. As a last resort perform Cesarean section. 



284 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Give the treatment of rigidity of the os uteri. 

Inject warm, emollient liquids into the vagina. Some authorities 
recommend smearing the os uteri with extract of belladonna. Local 
anaesthetics, such as cocaine and stovaine, might be useful. Manual 
or instrumental dilatation of the os is probably the best method to 
overcome this condition. 

Diseases Incident to Pregnancy and Labor 
Name the most prominent diseases following parturition. 

Retention of the after-birth, postpartum hemorrhage, rupture of 
the uterus, rupture of the vagina, eversion of the uterus, prolapse of 
the vagina, septic metritis and peritonitis, parturient eclampsia, 
parturient apoplexy, mammitis and laminitis. 

What diseases are incidental to pregnancy? 

Osteomalacia, dropsy of the fetal membranes, paraplegia, rup- 
ture of the uterus, prolapse of the vagina, metrorrhagia, abortion 
(sporadic and infectious). 

Name five diseases following parturition in the cow that may prove 
serious. 

Septic metritis, septic peritonitis, uterine prolapse, parturient 
paresis, puerperal septicaemia. 

Give the diagnosis of dead foetus in utero. 

The symptoms may vary, depending upon whether mummifi- 
cation or putrid decomposition occurs. In the former condition, no 
special symptoms are noted ; the cow, to all appearances, is in good 
health, she continues to fatten, the abdomen does not increase in 
size, the udder fails to develop, and, at the time for delivery, no signs 
of parturition appear. Examination per rectum will reveal the 
hard, unyielding mass. 

Putrid decomposition of the foetus may be manifested by expul- 
sion of portions of it through the vagina, an artificial opening in the 
abdominal wall, or the intestinal tract. The patient is greatly de- 
pressed, refuses food, and shows symptoms of septicaemia. Examina- 
tion of the uterus per rectum or per vaginam will disclose the 
abnormal condition. 

Give the causes and treatment of hydrops uteri. 

Hydrops uteri, or hydrometra, is a very rare condition. Two 
forms are described, viz., oedema of the uterine walls and an accumu- 
lation of fluid between the chorion and the uterine walls. The 
cause is not well understood, but may be attributed to circulatory 
disturbances. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 285 

Treatment: Evacuate the uterus (removing foetus if one is pres- 
ent) and irrigate the cavity with mildly astringent antiseptics. 
Build up the general health with tonics. 

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of hydrops amnii. 

The causes of this condition are not well understood. 

Symptoms: The most important symptom is the enormous 
rotundity of the abdomen. The walls of the same are tense and 
give a dull sound on percussion. As the swelling increases, the 
patient becomes dull, emaciated, and anagmic. Thirst is increased 
and appetite decreased. The respiratory movements become labored, 
owing to the pressure on the diaphragm. Rectal examination 
clinches the diagnosis. 

Treatment: Dilate the os, rupture the membranes, and remove 
the foetus. Give stimulants and aid involution of the uterus. 

Give the causes, prognosis and treatment of antepartum inversion of 
the vagina. 

Causes : Not well known. It has been observed most frequently 
in cows that have been closely confined and overfed on bulky feeds. 
These factors depress the general vigor and favor the action of 
infective agents, especially in the vagina, which responds by becom- 
ing inflamed, thus inducing straining and prolapse. A sloping floor 
is often an accessory, if not a direct, causative factor. 

Prognosis: A tendency to recur until parturition is completed 
makes the prognosis unfavorable; especially is this so when the 
organ becomes badly excoriated and inflamed. If delivery of the 
foetus can be brought about, the condition is more easily overcome. 

Treatment : Cleanse thoroughly with warm, non-irritating, anti- 
septic solutions (% P^r cent, lysol) and effect reposition of the 
prolapsed organ by gentle manual pressure. The replacement 
may be more easily accomplished by raising the hind quarters or, 
in small animals, by having an assistant hold the patient by the 
hind legs. After the organ is returned to its proper position, a 
mild, antiseptic agent should be injected; iodoform is very useful 
for this purpose, because it is not only antiseptic but slightly anags- 
thetic, and therefore lessens irritability and straining. Keep bowels 
open by administering cathartics. Straining to defecate and disten- 
tion of the intestines tend to cause a recurrence of the prolapse. 
If parturition is near, it may be advisable to empty the uterus. 
Bandages, sutures, trusses, etc., are of little use unless the cause 
of straining is eliminated. Sometimes the bladder is carried out 
wdthin the prolapsed vagina (vesico vaginocele). Urine accumulates 



286 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

because of the constriction of the urethra, and must be removed be- 
fore reposition can be effected. 

Give causes, symptoms and treatment of inversion o£ the uterus. 

Causes : Failure of the os uteri to close after parturition, tardy 
involution of the uterus, and retained placenta are potent, causative 
factors. Sloping floors, close confinement, and overfeeding are 
contributory, if not direct, causes. 

Symptoms: The prolapse may be partial or complete; that is, 
there may be simply a beginning invagination, or the inversion may 
be complete with the whole uterus turned inside out and hanging 
from the vulva. The walls of the prolapsed organ are continuous 
with the vagina and vulva, and there is more or less displacement of 
these organs. Occasionally the bladder is carried forward with the 
floor of the vagina. Intestines may be forced through the pelvic 
cavity into the inverted uterus. The condition may be further 
complicated by lacerations, inflammatory degenerations, etc., of the 
protruding parts. 

Treatment : Carefully cleanse and disinfect the prolapsed organ 
with 0.5 per cent, solution of phenol in normal salt solution. Place 
the patient in lateral recumbency with the posterior parts elevated. 
Remove any adherent portions of placenta and replace the organ by 
careful manual pressure. If the uterus is badly congested it may 
be very difficult to do this. The congestion may be overcome by 
elevating the uterus above the body level and applying a pressure 
bandage, beginning at the free extremity. After returning the 
organ, push the cornua back as far as possible with the clinched fist 
and inject tepid, sterile water to complete the unfolding of the 
intussusception. If necessary, administer narcotics to prevent ex- 
pulsive efforts. Should the uterus be badly wounded or necrotic, 
amputation may be necessary. (See answer to following question.) 

What is metrotomy? When is it indicated and how should it be per- 
formed? 

Metrotomy refers to the incising of the uterus. Metrectomy is 
the excision, or amputation, of the uterus. (Many persons incor- 
rectly use these two terms synonymously. Believing that the inter- 
rogator refers to amputation of the uterus, the following answer is 
given.) 

Amputation of the uterus is indicated in case of prolapse when 
reposition of the organ is impossible; when the organ is badly in- 
flamed, necrotic, or wounded. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 287 

The prolapsed organ should be carefully cleansed and disinfected. 
Make an incision into the uterus to determine whether any viscera 
extend into the cavity. Tightly apply an elastic ligature around 
the entire organ near the external os. Completely sever the organ 
by excising it about three inches from the ligature. Replace the 
stump of the organ and irrigate the vagina daily for five to ten 
days, when the necrotic stump should come away. To avoid any 
danger of the ligature slipping, it is safer to suture the uterus in 
such a way that the circulation is cut off from the stump. The 
latter is a more surgical procedure. 

State the difference between parturient eclampsia and parturient 
paresis. 

These two diseases usually occur soon after parturition, although 
they have been observed at, and shortly before, this act. The prin- 
cipal distinction made is the occurrence of tonic and clonic spasms 
(especially of the diaphragm) in parturient eclampsia, and of a 
comatose condition in parturient paresis. The former disease is seen 
most frequently in mares and the latter in cows. It may be noted 
that tonic and clonic spasms are sometimes seen in the early stages 
of parturient paresis, but they soon pass away, to be fallowed by 
coma. 

Give the Schmidt treatment of parturient apoplexy. 

The treatment, as originally introduced by Schmidt in 1897, 
consisted of the introduction into the udder of a solution of potas- 
sium iodide, mixed with atmospheric air. Later investigators found 
that the injection of air alone sufficed to bring about the same result. 

Observing the rules of asepsis, firmly distend the udder by inflat- 
ing it with air forced in by a suitable instrument. The air should 
be filtered through sterile cotton or forced through an antiseptic 
solution to rid it of any impurities. As a rule, a few hours after this 
treatment the cow regains her feet and appears perfectly normal. 
If this does not occur after an interval of three to six hours, inflate 
the gland again. Some practitioners ligate the teat after inflation, 
but this is seldom necessary, as the sphincter of the teat will prevent 
the air from escaping. 

Give the causes and treatment o£ puerperal eclampsia in the mare. 

The cause of this disease is not known. It is seen following the 
act of parturition with no premonitory symptoms. Williams men- 
tions the frequent occurrence of the disease in mares which have 
been suddenly taken from pasture to stable or put in harness, thus 



288 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

causing maternal anxiety and a disturbance of the central nervous 
system. 

Treatment: — Keep patient with her foal in quiet, comfortable 
quarters. Bloodletting is beneficial in early stages. Control spasms 
by administering large doses of the fluid extract of belladonna and 
cannabis indiea. 

Define endometritis. Give causes, symptoms and treatment of acute 
endometritis. 

Endometritis is an inflammation of the mucous lining of the 
uterus. It may be acute or chronic. 

Causes: Retention of fetal membranes or of a decomposed 
foetus ; infection of wounds occurring during parturition from em- 
bryotomy operations or otherwise ; introduction of infection through 
careless manipulations of attendants. The disease very often fol- 
lows a prolapse of the uterus for obvious reasons. In the case of a 
mare which recently came under the observation of the writer, the 
cause was attributed to the repeated attentions forced upon her by 
a cryptorchid stallion which consorted with her in pasture. 

Symptoms: Fever, tenderness of the abdomen, stifi'ness of the 
gait due to laminitis, which is usually present, a reddish-gray, floc- 
culent, foetid discharge from the vulva, a large amount of the same 
material in the uterus, thickening of the uterine walls, increased 
frequency of pulse and respiration. The patient may remain in a 
standing or a recumbent position. 

Treatment : Cleanse the uterine cavity by irrigating with warm, 
sterile water. Be sure to remove all fragments of placenta and 
accumulated discharges; continue the irrigation until the expelled 
water is clear. Then inject two or three gallons of a 1-1000 solution 
of potassium permanganate. Repeat this medication daily until 
the discharge changes to a healthy mucus, then gradually withdraw 
treatment. If the condition of the patient requires them, stimulants 
and antipyretics such as digitalis, quinine, and alcohol may be given. 

Give the symptoms and treatment of leucorrhoea. 

The term " leucorrhoea, ' ' meaning *' white flow," is applied to a 
whitish, viscid discharge from the vagina and uterine cavity. It is 
symptomatic of chronic inflammation of these parts (chronic endo- 
metritis). The discharge is usually intermittent, occurring during 
micturition or when straining. 

The appetite may be good, but emaciation advances. The mucous 
membrane of the genital canal is pale or, in some cases, red and 
roughened by granulations. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 289 

Treatment: Depends upon the cause. In general, the affected 
parts should be irrigated with warm, sterile water until it flows out 
clear; then with an astringent, antiseptic solution, such as potas- 
sium permanganate, 1-1000, or lysol, 1 per cent. Iodoform is 
highly efficient in this disease. A gelatine capsule containing two 
or three drachms of this agent can be carried into the uterine cavity 
and there opened and the contents scattered over the diseased 
membrane. Treatment must be persistent and repeated daily until 
a healthy condition is obtained. General tonics are useful. 

How may rupture of the uterus during labor be recognized? 

Small ruptures may pass unnoticed for a few days after par- 
turition, when the symptoms of septic peritonitis lead the operator 
to make a manual exploration and discover the opening. An ex- 
tensive rupture occurring during labor is often followed by collapse 
and death from hemorrhage. The escape of the fetal fluids into the 
peritoneal cavity likewise results in collapse and death. If death 
is not sudden, the animal ceases straining, the pulse becomes small 
and imperceptible, and a cold perspiration covers the body. 

Give the treatment of laceration of the cervix uteri. 

Small lacerations require little or no attention. Extensive 
lacerations should be treated antiseptically. Adjust the vaginal 
speculum and with long dressing forceps, holding pledgets of 
cotton, remove all discharges. In the same manner swab the edges 
of the wounds with proper medical agents, such as Tr. iodine, 
iodoform, etc. 

Define lochia and give its treatment. 

Lochia is the term applied to the uterine discharge occurring for 
a period of a few hours or a few days following parturition. It 
consists of blood and fragments of the uterine mucosa or of the 
placental villi, which must be expelled before the uterus can resume 
its normal state. It is a purely physiological condition and requires 
no treatment unless infection occurs, when the condition is no 
longer normal but pathological. 

What is meant by lochia? Is lochia common in domestic animals? 

See answer to preceding question. Lochia is common in all 
domestic animals, but is more noticeable in some than others. In 
the mare and cat it is very scant, whereas in the cow, sheep, and 
bitch it is more abundant. 
19 



290 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Give the treatment of postpartum hemorrhage. 

Slight hemorrhage requires little or no attention. Hasten in- 
volution of the organ and at the same time check the hemorrhage 
by the introduction of cold water or ice. Remove coagulated masses 
of blood and administer ergot or other stimulants to favor involu- 
tion. Severe hemorrhage should be treated by an intravenous 
infusion of normal salt solution. 

Define and describe (a) vaginismus, (b) vaginitis. 

(a) A painful spasm of the vagina due to local hypersesthesia. 

(b) Inflammation of the vagina. 

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment o£ vaginitis. 

Causes : Injuries during the act of parturition and entrance of 
infection; careless manipulations in assisting dystocia cases; irri- 
tant drugs used as vaginal or uterine douches; uterine discharges 
passing over the vaginal mucous membrane may, and usually do, 
irritate the same. 

Symptoms: Swelling and inflammation of the vaginal mucous 
membrane and a purulent, leucorrhoeal discharge. Defecation and 
urination are often difficult, owing to the pain in the parts. If 
long standing, ulceration and necrosis may be present. 

Treatment: Irrigate the vagina with warm, mild, antiseptic 
solutions ; 2 per cent, phenol or 1 per cent, lysol is useful. In mild 
cases use a solution of sodium bicarbonate. In ulceration use silver 
nitrate or Tr, iodine. 

Describe the symptoms and give the treatment of contagious vaginitis. 

Granular venereal disease, or infectious granular vaginitis, is 
a disease of cows which is especially characterized by the formation 
of small granular elevations in the vulvar and posterior vaginal 
mucosa. In addition, swelling of the vulvo-vaginal mucosa and 
a mucopurulent discharge is observed. This disease is said by many 
good authorities to be the chief cause of the so-called *' infectious 
abortion," and to be very extensively spread in this country. 
The importance of the disease depends upon its many complications, 
which are: abortion, retained placenta, septic metritis, septicaemia, 
pyaemia, pyometra, cystic ovaries, persistent corpora lutea, etc. 

Treatment: Separate the well from the diseased; disinfect 
stables; cleanse vulva and vagina of all discharges and disin- 
fect these parts with a 0.5 per cent, solution of phenol. It would 
be a wise prophylactic measure to disinfect the sheath and penis 
of each bull which has covered affected cows. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 291 

Give the causes, symptoms and the treatment of puerperal septicaemia. 

Causes: Septic inflammation of the uterus; retained placenta; 
retention of a decomposed foetus; infection of wounds occurring 
during labor. 

Symptoms : Four or five days after parturition, we notice fever, 
rapid pulse and rapid respiration, fetid discharge from vulva, ex- 
treme weakness, lessened milk secretion, constipation alternating 
with diarrhoea, death in a short time (24 hours to a few days). In 
non-fatal cases pysemic arthritis may supervene. 

Treatment: Usually fruitless. Thoroughly cleanse and disin- 
fect the septic genital tract. Quinine, which stands preeminently 
the best drug in septic fevers, should be administered in large doses 
(one ounce, twice daily if necessary). 

Write a prescription for retained placenta in the cow. 

The handling of retained placenta is principally mechanical, 
although in cases accompanied by grave constitutional disturbances 
the following may be useful: 

Tr. digitalis 5 vj 

Quininae sulphatis S i j 

( Ac. sulphurici qs. ) 

Spts. vini rect. qs. ad Oj 

M. 

Sig. — Give one ounce every 4 hours. 

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of acute mastitis in the cow. 

Causes : In practically every case mastitis originates from infec- 
tion, which gains entrance through the teats, wounds, or by the 
blood- and lymph-stream. As predisposing or accessory factors the 
following may be considered : cold, trauma, retained placenta, filthy 
surroundings, careless and irregular milking, and inflation of the 
udder in the treatment of milk fever. 

Symptoms: One or all four quarters of the udder may be in- 
volved. Heat, tenderness, redness, and swelling are marked from 
the first. There is a suspension of the milk secretion in the affected 
quarters. The milk which is present in the gland is clumpy and 
may be streaked with blood. Fever, loss of appetite, constipation, 
and general depression show the systemic disturbance. Complica- 
tions that may aggravate the condition are gangrene, abscess for- 
mation, pyaemia, septicaemia, atrophy of the gland, and pyaemic 
arthritis. 

Treatment: Hot fomentations and massage increase leucocy- 
tosis and are conceded to be the most valuable of all treatments. 



292 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Frequent milking, suspensory bandages, external application of 
disinfectants, intramammary injections of same, and many other 
measures have their advocates. Increased activity of the alimentary 
tract should be stimulated by a laxative diet and the use of areco- 
line, or eserine and pilocarpine. Certain drugs, such as camphor 
and turpentine, which are eliminated in the milk, are useful because 
of their disinfectant action, and may be given in full doses. Abscess 
formation and gangrene call for surgical interference. 

What are the causes o£ colic in pregnant animals? Give treatment. 

The etiology of ''true" colic occurring in pregnancy would be 
little different from that in a non-pregnant animal; likewise the 
treatment, except that precautions should be taken to avoid drugs 
which might empty the uterus. ''False" colic may be observed in 
torsion of the uterus (q.v.). 

Why are rickets and osteomalacia frequently observed in pregnant 
animals? Give treatment. 
These diseases, in any animal, can usually be traced to a de- 
ficiency in the quantity or the quality of the food. A lack of lime 
salts, especially the phosphate of calcium, has long been recognized 
as a potent etiological factor. Add to this the extra demand made 
upon the pregnant animal by the developing foetus, as well as a low- 
ered vitality from prolonged lactation, and it is entirely obvious 
why these diseases are frequently observed in pregnancy. 

Treatment : Improve the quality and quantity of the food. The 
regular administration of calcium phosphate in the food is very 
beneficial. In addition, nux vomica and potassium iodide may be 
given with good results. 

Mention two causes of hernia of the bladder into the vaginal canal. 
Give procedure for reducing the hernia. 

This very rare condition may occur by reason of a rupture in 
the floor of the vagina, or the organ may become everted through 
a relaxed urethral opening when the intra-abdominal pressure is 
increased by violent expulsive efforts. 

In the former condition replace the organ and suture the rent in 
the vaginal floor, taking care to bring the peritoneal surfaces of the 
wound together. In the latter, gentle pressure should be directed 
toward returning the everted organ. After replacement is effected, 
allay irritation by irrigating the bladder with warm, normal salt 
solution and prevent straining by the use of local or general anaes- 
thetics. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 293 

Give causes, symptoms and treatment of puerperal laminitis of the 
mare. 

Causes : Occurs in connection with, endometritis due to retention 
of a part of the placenta. Toxins, formed as a result of the bac- 
terial decomposition, are absorbed and laminitis is produced through 
metastasis. 

Symptoms: Same as acute laminitis from other causes, and, in 
addition, the symptoms of endometritis are observed. (See acute 
laminitis, p. 255, and acute endometritis, p. 288.) 

Treatment: Remove all placental fragments from the uterine 
cavity. Irrigate the cavity with mild, antiseptic solutions such as 
lysol, carbolic acid, and potassium permanganate. Powdered iodo- 
form is useful, (See treatment of acute endometritis, p. 288.) 

Name some of the principal causes of sterility in (a) the male, (b) 
the female. 

(a) Cryptorchidism, idleness and overfeeding, masturbation, 
orchitis and epididymitis, hydrocele, and excessive sexual use. 

(b) Cystic ovaries, emaciation, overwork, metritis, occlusion 
of the OS uteri, and senile atrophy of the sexual organs. 

What is sterility? Name some causes of sterility and give the treat- 
ment. 

Sterility is the inability to reproduce young. 

Causes: In the male, sterility may be due to cryptorchidism, 
previous attack of orchitis or epididymitis. No treatment will over- 
come sterility due to these causes. Idleness and overfeeding often 
lead to impotency. The treatment for these conditions is sug- 
gested by the cause. Onanism may cause sterility. This vice may 
be corrected by proper feeding and exercise. A shield, so adjusted 
over the sheath as to cause pain when the penis is protruded, will 
prohibit erection and thus prevent masturbation. 

In the female, sterility is commonly caused by cystic degener- 
ation of the ovaries. These cysts are sometimes crushed by manual 
pressure, either per rectum or per vaginam, but there is a tendency 
to recurrence which leads to a fibrous degeneration. Metritis is an 
etiological factor. Acute metritis usually responds to local treat- 
ment (antiseptic irrigation with potassium permanganate, 1-1000), 
but chronic metritis, pyometra, requires long-continued treatment. 
The OS uteri must be dilated and the uterine cavity irrigated daily 
with proper antiseptic solutions. The introduction of iodoform 
powder in a gelatine capsule is useful. Occlusion of the os uteri is 



294 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

often advanced as a cause of sterility, but in most cases is over- 
estimated. 

Name three pathological conditions of the ovary which may cause 
sterility. 
Tuberculosis, tumors, and cystic degeneration. 

Diseases of the New-born 

Name four infectious diseases of the new-born and four non-infectious. 

Infectious : Omphalophlebitis, tetanus neonatorum, white scours, 
septic pleuropneumonia. 

Non-infectious: Asphyxia, umbilic hemorrhage, umbilical her- 
nia, retention of meconium. 

Name three diseases of the new-born and give the treatment of each. 
See answers to succeeding questions. 

Give method of treatment for the resuscitation of an asphyxiated new- 
born colt. 

Apply traction and relaxation alternately upon the tongue ; sus- 
pend animal by hind legs to dislodge mucus; induce artificial 
respiration by alternately compressing and relaxing the chest; 
alternating electric current may be used if at hand. 

Give the causes and the treatment of diarrhoea in the new-born. 

Causes: Overfeeding, improper food, milk from overheated or 
exhausted mothers, unsanitary feeding utensils, and infection. In- 
fectious diarrhoea ("white scours"), a specific disease, is due to 
infection of the navel. 

Treatment: Allow young to nurse frequently. If artificially 
fed, sterilize feeding utensils and give food of unquestionable qual- 
ity as regards bacterial content, etc. Give a mild, soothing cathar- 
tic, such as castor oil, and follow, if necessary, with small repeated 
doses of bismuth subnitrate. Lime water and milk in the proportion 
of 1 : 4 is an excellent diet for artificially-fed animals. Clean, sani- 
tary quarters should be provided. ''White scours," due to navel 
infection, requires local antiseptic treatment in addition to the 
above. 

Give the causes of umbilic infection. 

The cord may be infected in its passage through the vulvo- 
vaginal canal, or later the stump of the ruptured cord may come in 
contact with the earth, soiled bedding, urine, etc. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 295 

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of umbilic hernia. 

Causes: Failure of the umbilic ring in the abdominal floor to 
close as it normally should. This condition is a congenital defect 
which seems to be hereditary. Rarely is the defect acquired or 
accidental. 

Symptoms: The presence of a reducible or irreducible, painless 
tumor in the region of the navel, which may vary in size from that 
of a hen's egg to a child's head, or larger. It is usually soft and 
fluctuating and can be pushed through the circular or elliptical- 
shaped opening in the abdominal floor, but immediately returns 
when the pressure is released. If strangulation, which rarely occurs, 
is present, the tumor may be irreducible. 

Treatment: Many plans have been tried, such as ligation, ban- 
dages, trusses, topical applications, clamps and sutures, but the last 
named has the preference. Small herniag often disappear spon- 
taneously before the animal is three or four months old. Best plan 
of treatment is to secure the patient on its back and give a general 
anaesthetic; shave and disinfect the skin over the hernia; make an 
incision through the hernial sac and expose the ring; bring the 
margins of the ring together with strong, deeply-inserted sutures 
of silk or catgut ; close the skin wound and apply an antiseptic pack 
over wound, holding it in place with body bandag^e. Small herniae 
may be sutured similarly without making an incision through the 
skin, but by passing sutures through the whole sac near its base. 
These sutures may be so arranged that the sac is ligated and 
sloughed away. 

Give the causes, S5niiptoms and treatment of inflammation of the um- 
bilic cord (omphalophlebitis). 

Causes : Infection due to contact with soiled litter, faeces, urine, 
etc. Manipulations of the cord by laymen or others without observ- 
ing aseptic precautions. Needless or faulty ligation of the cord. 
Flies also carry infection. 

Symptoms: The disease, which occurs a few hours after birth, 
may remain local (omphalitis) or extend to the umbilical vein 
(omphalophlebitis) and result in septicopyaemia. If local, swelling 
and tenderness of the navel region are noted; a thin, watery, or 
blood-tinged discharge which later contains pus exudes ; little or no 
systemic disturbance is observed. Later, two to ten days, if the 
inflammation extends to deeper parts, a sudden, severe, general 
disturbance takes place; this is manifested by fever, inappetency, 
lameness due to septic arthritis, painful swellings about the articu- 



296 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

lations, abscess formation in various parts, such as the liver, kidneys, 
spleen, lungs, etc. Therefore the symptoms may be many and 
varied. 

Treatment: This disease is more easily prevented than cured. 
Local disinfection is the best and only measure necessary. Remove 
all necrotic tissue, thoroughly cleanse and apply dry antiseptic 
powders to the stump of the cord. If the infection has become 
generalized, all treatment is practically hopeless, but local disin- 
fection should be energetically effected. The various methods of 
increasing the opsonic index by injections of antistreptococcic sera, 
vaccines, etc., may be useful. 

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of foal-lameness. 

See answer to preceding question. 

Give the treatment of imperforated anus. 

Make an incision through the skin where the anus should be, 
down upon the mass of meconium in the rectum. 

Give the symptoms and the treatment of persistence of the urachus. 

Symptoms : All, or part, of the urine, depending upon whether 
the urethra is open or not, is discharged through the navel. Navel 
infection with omphalophlebitis may follow. 

Treatment : If the urethra is imperforate, attempt opening same, 
then apply desiccating and astringent antiseptics, such as Tr. iodine, 
or actual cautery to the navel. If the urethra cannot be opened, 
the prognosis is bad, as infection will sooner or later enter the navel 
and produce fatal results. 

What is cyanosis in the new-born? Give cause and symptoms. 

A blueness of the skin and mucous membranes, due to cardiac 
malformation causing insufficient oxygenation of the blood. 

Cause: Failure of the foramen ovale (a fetal structure, consist- 
ing of an opening between the auricles) to close at birth. 

Symptoms: Extreme weakness, rapid respiration, and a bluish 
coloration of the skin and visible mucous membranes. 

Describe the external sexual organs in a case of hermaphrodism. 

Varies greatly in different cases. In general, a rudimentary 
penis or enlarged clitoris projects backward or downward from the 
lower commissure of a vulva. The mammary gland is moderately 
developed in its normal position or may resemble a scrotum and 
contain undeveloped testicles. 



MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS* 

Define (a) materia medica, (b) therapeutics. 

(a) Materia medica treats of the derivation, natural history, 
physical and chemical properties, physiological actions, doses and 
tests of purity of drugs. 

(b) Therapeutics is that branch of knowledge which treats of 
the application of all means — medicinal or otherwise — to the cure 
of disease or relief of pain. 

By what modes are medicines introduced into the organism? 

1. By intravenous injection. 

2. By inhalation. 

3. By subcutaneous injection. 

4. By intratracheal injection. 

5. By the mouth (orally). 

6. By the rectum. 

7. By inunction. 

Compare as to size of dose and length of time required for action, the 
following modes of administering medicine: (a) by mouth, 
(b) by rectum, (c) by intravenous injection, (d) by hypo- 
dermic injection. 

(a) One-half the rectal dose, four to six times the intravenous 
dose, and twice the hypodermic dose. Absorption more rapid than 
from the rectum and slower than by intravenous and hypodermic 
methods. 

(b) Twice the oral dose. Absorption is slower and more imper- 
fect than by the mouth. 

(c) One-half to one-third the hypodermic and one-fourth to one- 
sixth the oral dose. Absorption immediate. 

(d) One-half the oral dose. Absorption quicker than all others 
except the intravenous method. 

This comparison is made with alkaloidal drugs, as they are the 
ones usually given intravenously and subcutaneously. 

What is meant by synergistic remedial agents? Describe fully. 

Agents which assist or intensify the action of others. Belladonna 
promotes the action of nux vomica, mercury and the iodides favor 

* Unless otherwise stated all questions relate to the horse. 

297 



298 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

the action of silver as a waste producer, the alkalies favor the 
action of sulphur compounds, both chemically and physiologically. 

What is meant by (a) the physiological action of a drug, (b) the toxic 
dose of a drug, (c) the lethal dose of a drug? 

(a) The definite and limited action of a drug upon some part of 
the organism, intended to antagonize or overcome a particular patho- 
logical condition. 

(b) A dose sufficient to produce poisoning. 

(c) A fatal dose. 

Into what classes are cathartics divided? Name one cathartic of each 
class and state how it acts. 

1. Laxatives : olive oil acts mechanically and slightly stimulates 
peristalsis. 

2. Simple purgatives : calomel stimulates secretion and peristal- 
tic action. 

3. Drastic purgatives: croton oil greatly increases peristaltic 
action and secretions. 

4. Hydragogue purgatives : magnesium sulphate abstracts water 
from the blood by stimulating secretion. 

5. Cholagogue purgatives: sodium phosphate increases the flow 
of bile, which stimulates peristalsis. 

How do sedatives act? What is the danger of the excessive use of 
sedatives? 
Sedatives act by depressing protoplasm and lowering functional 
activity. They allay nervous irritability by diminishing the con- 
duction of impressions to the brain. Their excessive use may cause 
the cardiac and respiratory actions to cease. A long-continued use 
of sedatives may lead to alarming nervous irritability if suddenly 
discontinued or if the dosage is not increased. 

Give the physiological actions and the therapeutic uses of aconite. 

Aconite decreases the cardiac rate and force, lowers arterial ten- 
sion and temperature. The respiratory centre is depressed. It is a 
diaphoretic and diuretic; depresses the functional activity of the 
perceptive centres in the brain, the sensory side of the spinal cord, 
and the peripheral sensory nerves. 

It is indicated in all affections characterized by a high resisting 
pulse and an elevated temperature; is useful in acute pharyngitis, 
laryngitis, pleurisy, peritonitis, encephalitis, laminitis, enteritis, 
and mammitis ; also used in acute muscular or articular rheumatism, 
and as a sedative in cardiac disturbance. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 299 

What are the uses of tincture of aconite? Give the dose of tincture of 
aconite (a) for the horse, (b) for the dog. How long should 
maximum doses be given? 
See answer to preceding question. 

It is given in doses of 15 minims to the horse and 2 minims to 
the dog, every 15 minutes for two hours, and afterwards 30 minims 
for the horse and 3 minims for the dog, every hour, until the tem- 
perature and pulse-rate are lowered. The drug should be used 
with caution and the pulse carefully watched. The maximum dose 
for the horse, ,% to 1% drachms, for the dog, 2 to 8 minims, should 
not be repeated without first examining the pulse and heart. 

Give the indications for barium chloride. State the dose according to 
the method of administration. 
Barium chloride is indicated in obstinate constipation of the 
horse and in colics where a quick-acting cathartic is needed. 
Dose : 7 to 15 grains, intravenously ; 1 to 3 drachms per os. 

Name the drugs that exert the greatest effect on glandular structures. 

Pilocarpine, arecoline, belladonna, calomel, potassium iodide, 

alcohol, ammonia, antimony and potassium tartrate, aloes, apomor- 

phine, ipecac, camphor, opium, spirits nitrous ether, potassium 

nitrate, etc. 

Name the more common preparations of mercury. State the actions, 
uses and the doses of each. 

1. Unguentum hydrargyri: Parasiticide, stimulant, antiseptic, 
and resolvent. Used externally for mange, lice, ringworm, small 
exostoses, etc. 

2. Hydrargyri iodidum rubrum: Resolvent and pustulant, 
counterirritant. Used externally for splints, spavins, ringbones, 
chronic tendinitis, enlarged bursae, enlarged joints, chronic laryn- 
gitis, etc. 

3. Hydrargyri ehloridum mite: Laxative, cathartic, diuretic, 
antiseptic, alterative and vermifuge; externally, desiccant, anti- 
parasiticide, and antiseptic. Used in gastritis; icterus due to con- 
stipation, catarrh of the duodenum or hepatic congestion; and 
influenza. Used in combination with santonin for intestinal worms. 
Externally, it is used in chronic eczema, itching of the skin, and 
thrush. Dose, % to 1 drachm. 

4. Hydrargyri ehloridum eorrosivum : Corrosive, irritant poison, 
alterative, antiseptic, and hepatic stimulant. Used externally, in 
strength varying from 1-500 to 1-10,000, as an antiseptic for 



300 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

wounds, quittors, fistulous withers, etc. Used as a sloughing agent 
in fibrous growths. In endometritis, a solution of 1-10,000 is used 
as a douche. 

Describe the medicinal treatment of pneumonia. 

In the congestive stage, veratrum and aconite in full doses. 
Counterirritants such as mustard on the chest-wall may relieve the 
patient. Active friction followed with bandages on the legs. 

In the stage of hepatization, support the heart with digitalis, 
alcohol, etc. Reduce the temperature, if excessive, with aconite, 
quinine sulphate, etc. Give mild laxatives, such as Glauber's salts, 
calomel, or linseed oil ; alkaline diuretics, as potassium nitrate. 

In the stage of resolution, give stimulating expectorants, such as 
ammonium chloride and ammonium carbonate. The convalescent 
period is shortened by the use of tonics, such as nux vomica, arsenic, 
etc. 

Give the treatment of tetanus. 

Surgically remove tissue surrounding the point of infection or 
thoroughly cauterize same and treat daily with strong disinfectants. 
Phenol is best for this purpose. Keep the patient in a quiet place. 
The use of antitoxin as a therapeutic agent is still suh judice. By 
most authorities it is considered valueless in this connection. 
Attempts to control spasms may be made with potassium bromide, 
given in four-ounce doses every four hours. Morphine, chloral, 
or lobelia may assist. Rectal or nasal feeding may help in nourish- 
ing the patient. Saline laxatives to secure free elimination. 

Describe the treatment of influenza in its simple form. 

A laxative condition of the bowels should be secured by feeding 
bran-mashes and administering calomel. Stimulants such as liquor 
ammonium acetatis or ammonium carbonate are valuable. If the 
fever is high, quinine, acetanilide and antipyrine are important 
antipyretics which can be used. In oedema of the extremities, potas- 
sium nitrate is indicated. Support a weak heart with digitalis, 
camphor, or strychnine. Counterirritants on the chest and throat 
may be useful. Treat complications symptomatically. 

Name four alkalies. Give the action and the uses of alkalies. 

Potassium, sodium, lithium, and ammonium. 

Actions : The salts of potassium are irritants, caustics, diuretics, 
antacids, alteratives, and antipyretics. Potassium nitrate is useful 
in dropsical effusions. Potassium bromide is a nerve depressant, 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 301 

useful in spasms and nervous excitement. Potassium hydroxide is a 
caustic used on warts and tumors and to prevent the growth of 
horns on cattle. Potassium chlorate is an antiseptic which is useful 
in pharyngitis and stomatitis. Potassium iodide is used as an altera- 
tive in actinomycosis and other chronic conditions. 

The salts of sodum are irritants, caustics, diuretics, cathartics, 
and alteratives. Sodium bicarbonate is useful in gastric and intes- 
tinal catarrh. Sodium bromide is used same as potassium bromide. 
Sodium chloride is used intravenously in hemorrhage, anaemia, and 
collapse, also in gastro-intestinal catarrh. Sodium sulphate is a laxa- 
tive which is serviceable in gastro-intestinal catarrh, serous exu- 
dates, and oedemas. Sodium hyposulphite is used as an antacid and 
antiseptic in gastric tympany. Sodium hydroxide is used same as 
potassium hydroxide. 

The salts of lithium are diuretics which are used in uric acid 
calculi for their solvent action; also used in rheumatism. 

The salts of ammonium are stimulants, expectorants, diapho- 
retics, antipyretics, diuretics, vesicants, irritants, antacids, etc. 
Ammonium carbonate is used as an antacid in colic and tympanites, 
as a circulatory and respiratory stimulant and a stimulating expec- 
torant in the third stage of pneumonia, in bronchitis, emphysema, 
and as a heart stimulant in collapse. Ammonium chloride is a stimu- 
lant expectorant used in catarrhal bronchitis and pneumonia. Aqua 
ammonia is an antacid useful in tympanites and externally in 
liniments. 

What are the general actions of opium? Give the dose of opium for 
the horse, the cow and the dog. 
Opium is analgesic, hypnotic, diaphoretic, antispasmodic, and 
narcotic ; also cardiac and respiratory depressant, after brief stimu- 
lation. 

Dose of powdered opium for the horse, 20 to 90 grains ; for the 
cow, 1 to 2 drachms; for the dog, i/4 ^^ 3 grains. 

State the source and the uses of opium. 

Opium is obtained in Asia Minor from the unripe capsule of 
Papaver somniferum, or poppy plant, by incision and spontaneous 
evaporation of the milky exudate. 

It is used as an antispasmodic in peripheral irritation ( cough) ; 
checks excessive secretions and suppresses peristalsis in acute inflam- 
matory affections of the bowels (the bowels should be previously 
cleared of the irritant). Useful in pleurisy to check the develop- 



302 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

me-nt of hydrothorax and in peritonitis to prevent ascites. In 
catarrhal diseases it lessens the discharge ; in cerebrospinal menin- 
gitis and muscular spasms to lessen the nervous irritability; to 
cheek premature labor pain and prevent straining in eversion of 
the rectum or uterus. 

Give the actions and the uses of ergot. 

Ergot is a powerful vasomotor stimulant, haemostatic, gastro- 
intestinal irritant, and ecbolic. It stimulates and contracts involun- 
tary muscular fibres, and hence diminishes the blood-stream passing 
through the arterioles ; large doses or small repeated doses produce 
ergotism, which is characterized by gangrene of the extremities, 
due to lack of blood supply to the parts. 

Ergot is used as an ecbolic to stimulate weak uterine contractions 
and promote expulsion of the foetus or f cetal membrgmes ; also used 
as a vasomotor constrictor in postpartum or other internal 
hemorrhage. 

Give the actions and the uses of the iron salts. 

Iron in general is a haematinic, stomachic, styptic, astringent, 
and haemostatic. The sulphate is a vermicide. The iodide is altera- 
tive and resolvent as well as tonic. 

Iron is used in angemia, diarrhcea, intestinal worms, and as a 
valuable tonic in convalescence from debilitating diseases. Locally, 
the chloride of iron is used to check hemorrhage and as an astringent 
in chronic pharyngitis and laryngitis. Internally, it is used as a 
diuretic and tonic in purpura hemorrhagica. 

The hydrated sesquioxide of iron is a specific antidote for 
arsenical poisoning. The phosphate is serviceable in diseases of bone 
(rachitis, osteoporosis) and nervous exhaustion. The sulphate 
improves the appetite and abates exhausting discharges in chronic 
catarrhal rhinitis and endometritis. 

Give the actions and the uses of cantharides. 

Externally, cantharides is irritant, rubefacient, vesicant. In- 
ternally, it is irritant, and stimulates the genito-urinary tract, 
diuretic and aphrodisiac. 

It is used internally (rarely) to produce sexual excitement; 
and for incontinence of the urine from paralysis of the bladder. 
Externally, it is a valuable counterirritant and vesicant. Used in 
sprains, tendovaginitis, periostitis, exostoses, wind-puffs, chronic 
laryngitis and pharyngitis, and to stimulate the growth of horn 
and hair. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 303 

What preparations of arsenic are most used in veterinary medicine ? 

Arsenous acid, iodide of arsenic, Fowler 's solution, and Pearson 's 
solution. 

Give the actions and the uses of arsenic. 

Arsenic is a gastro-intestinal and respiratory tonic, a stimulant 
and alterative, acting especially on the digestive and respiratory 
mucous membrane and the skin. It is an antiperiodic, also anti- 
spasmodic in nervous diseases, and is a nervine tonic. It increases 
the cardiac action, respiratory power, and secretion of the intestines ; 
also has a vermicidal action. 

Uses: General tonic after debilitating diseases, especially pneu- 
monia, pleurisy, and bronchitis; intestinal worms, chronic cough 
(heaves). Used in anaemia, chorea, chronic eczema, and periodically 
returning fevers. 

How should a course of arsenic be administered so as to avoid chronic 
arsenical poisoning? 
Begin with very small amounts and gradually increase the dose 
until the physiological limit is reached (oedema and itching of the 
eyelids), then gradually decrease the dose. Do not leave off the 
administration abruptly. A tolerance for the drug can be acquired 
so that large doses may be given with impunity. 

Describe the actions of arecoline hydrobromide and give the dose for 
the horse. 
Arecoline hydrobromide increases salivation and intestinal 
secretions ; stimulates peristalsis, slows and softens the pulse. It is 
used as a quick-acting cathartic in colics and acute laminitis in 
doses of 14 to % grain subcutaneously, repeated in 20 minutes. A 
single dose of 1 to 1% grains subcutaneously is given by some, but 
fractional doses are safer. 

Name the iodine compounds and give their actions and uses. 

Liquor iodi compositus (LugoUs solution), ammonium iodide, 
sodium iodide, and potassium iodide are given internally; tincture 
of iodine and iodoform are used externally. 

Actions: Externally, stimulant, irritant, and vesicant; if used 
concentrated, antiseptic, resolvent, parasiticide, deodorizer, and dis- 
infectant. Internally, alterative, resolvent, deobstruent, and ex- 
pectorant ; stimulates glandular activity and promotes tissue changes 
as well as the absorption and elimination of recently formed tissue 
and diseased cells. Forms insoluble compounds with lead, mercury, 
and other metals and hastens their removal in cases of poisoning. 



304 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Uses: Externally for enlarged glands, periosteal inflammation, 
capped hock, curb, chronic synovitis, pharyngitis, and laryngitis; 
to stimulate granulations in slow-healing wounds and promote the 
growth of hair. Useful to disinfect the skin before operations; 
as a parasiticide in mange, ringworm, and f avus ; iodoform is used 
as a dusting powder in suppurative wounds for its bactericidal and 
stimulating effect. It also has a slight anaesthetic action. 

Internally, potassium iodide is most commonly used. It is a 
specific in actinomycosis ; alterative in chronic bronchitis and laryn- 
gitis; antidote for chronic lead poisoning; goitre, scirrhous cord, 
botryomycosis, hydrothorax, ascites, cirrhosis of the liver, and 
periodic ophthalmia are often improved by the use of potassium 
iodide internally. Ammonium iodide is useful to hasten the stage 
of resolution in pneumonia. 

What effect has acetanilide on the temperature? Give its action and 
uses. 

Acetanilide has a decided antipyretic effect in fevers, but little 
effect on a normal temperature. It is mildly diaphoretic, slightly 
antiseptic, diuretic, and depressant to the heart. 

It should be used in very high fevers only, especially thermic 
fever (sunstroke), in one- to two-drachm doses, repeated not oftener 
than every six hours. 

State the source and the uses of acetanilide. 

Acetanilide is obtained by distilling together glacial acetic acid 
and aniline and purifying the residue by repeated crystallization. 
(See answer to preceding question.) 

Define the following terms: haustus, coUyrium, electuary, decoction, 
infusion, elixir, emulsion. 

Haustus is a draft, or drench, of medicine. 

CoUyrium is an eye-wash. 

Electuary is a medicinal powder, beaten up with sugar, honey, 
or molasses to the consistency of thick paste. Electuaries are in- 
tended to be smeared on the teeth of animals where they melt at body 
temperature and act locally on the mouth and throat. 

Decoction is an aqueous preparation, obtained by boiling drugs 
in water. 

Infusion is an aqueous solution of a drug, macerated in boiling 
water without the aid of ebullition. 

Elixir is a sweetened, aromatic, alcoholic solution of a drug. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 305 

Emulsion is a milky fluid obtained by mixing an oil or resin with 
water. The globules of oil or particles of insoluble resin are held 
in suspension by some gummy substance, usually acacia. Milk is 
a natural emulsion. 

What are stimulants? Name (a) a cardiac stimulant, (b) a hepatic 
stimulant, (c) a cerebral stimulant, (d) a diffusible, or gen- 
eral, stimulant. 
A stimulant is an agent which increases functional activity, 
(a) Camphor, (b) podophyllum, (c) opium, (d) alcohol. 

Name the ingredients, giving the proportion of each, found in each of 
the following mixtures : the A. C. E. mixture, the E. C. 
mixture. 

A. C. E. = Alcohol 1 part, chloroform 2 parts, and ether 3 parts. 

E. C. = Ether and chloroform, equal parts. 

What is meant by (a) chemical incompatibility, (b) physiologic in- 
compatibility, (c) pharmaceutical incompatibility? Give 
an example of each. 

(a) Chemical incompatibility occurs when drugs are so mixed 
that an unsuitable alteration in their chemical composition takes 
place, e.g., calomel with nitrohydrochloric acid forms corrosive 
sublimate. 

(b) Physiologic incompatibility consists in the union of drugs 
possessing antagonistic physiological actions; — e.g., atropine and 
pilocarpine. 

(c) Pharmaceutic incompatibility results in the production of 
an unsightly mixture due to physical change ; e.g., resinous tinctures 
and aqueous solutions cause the resins to separate. 

How do tinctures differ from spirits? Give examples. 

Tinctures are alcoholic solutions of non-volatile principles (ex- 
cept Tr. iodine), made usually by maceration and percolation of 
the crude drug. Examples, belladonna tincture, aconite tincture, 
etc. 

Spirits are alcoholic solutions of volatile substances. Example, 
spirits of camphor. 

Describe the preparation of a tincture. Name five official tinctures. 

The majority of tinctures are made by percolation. This is 
accomplished by packing the powdered drug in a suitable vessel and 
depriving it of its soluble constituents by allowing a menstruum, or 
20 



306 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

solvent, to descend through it. The menstruum used is alcohol, 
except in two cases, when aromatic spirits of ammonia is used as 
a solvent. 

Five official tinctures: Tr. aloes, Tr. iodine, Tr. nux vomica, 
Tr. gentian, and Tr. opium. 

Give the actions and the uses of veratrum viride. State the dose for 
(a) the horse, (b) the dog. 
Veratrum viride is a cardiac depressant, febrifuge, spinal 
paralyzant, emetic, and cathartic. Used about the same as aconite, 
but is inferior to same. Employed as an emetic in swine, stomachic 
in cattle in indigestion, and for pneumonia and other respiratory 
diseases in the horse. Used to lower temperature, relieve pain, and 
lessen the duration of acute rheumatic fever. Dose for the horse, 
3ss-j., for the dog, gr. Vio-1- 

Give in the metric system (a) the table of weight, (b) the unit of weight, 
(c) the unit of measure of liquids. 

(a) 10 milligrammes = 1 centigramme, 
10 centigrammes = 1 decigramme, 
10 decigrammes = 1 gramme, 

10 grammes = 1 decagramme, 

10 decagrammes = 1 hectogramme, 
10 hectogrammes = 1 kilogramme. 

(b) One gramme is the unit of weight; it being the weight of 
one cubic centimetre of distilled water, at the temperature of 4° C. 

(c) One cubic centimetre is the unit of measure of liquids. 

Give the actions and uses of quinine sulphate. State the dose for (a) 
the horse, (b) the cow, (c) the dog. 

Quinine sulphate is a tonic, antiseptic, antiperiodic, antipyretic, 
antiphlogistic, antimiasmatic, stomachic, and antiferment. Small 
doses stimulate the heart and brain, large doses depress both. Large 
doses lower reflex activity of the spinal cord. 

It is used as a bitter stomachic and tonic to improve the appetite 
and stimulate digestion. Checks abnormal gastro-intestinal fermen- 
tation. Used in anaemia, septicsemia, pyaemia, influenza, strangles, 
purpura hemorrhagica, and other infectious febrile diseases. It 
is of great benefit in distemper of dogs, chorea, and rheumatism; 
also used as an antipyretic and stimulant in pneumonia and 
bronchitis. 

(a) 2 to 4 drachms, (b) 4 to 6 drachms, (c) 1 to 5 grains. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 307 

State the dose of quinine as an antipyretic and tell how often the dose 
should be repeated. 
Two drachms, repeated every three or fours hours. 

What is an anaesthetic? Give the uses of anaesthetics. Mention 
three examples of each of the two great classes of anaes- 
thetics. 
An anaesthetic is an agent which diminishes or abolishes sensa- 
tion. It is used to prevent pain and struggling during surgical 
operations, in obstetrical operations, reduction of fractures, dislo- 
cation and hernias, to overcome spasms and convulsions resulting 
from disease or poisons, and finally to destroy aged or sick and 
useless animals. Local anaesthetics are sometimes used in making 
diagnoses of lameness. 

Local: Cocaine, alypin, and stovaine. 

General: Ether, chloroform, and nitrous oxide. (Chloral hy- 
drate is often used as a general anaesthetic.) 

Name three local anaesthetics and describe the mode of application of 
each. 

1. Cocaine hydrochloride. Dose for the horse, 2 to 10 grains, 
hypodermically. Used in 4 to 10 per cent, solution, injected under 
the skin. 

2. Eueaine hydrochlorate. Used same as cocaine. 

3. Phenol. Applied to the skin over the line where an incision 
is to be made. 

What is morphine? Describe the actions and uses in medicine of 
morphine. State the hypodermic dose for (a) the horse, 
(b) the dog. 

Morphine is an alkaloid obtained from opium. It occurs in 
colorless or white crystals, or as a crystalline powder, odorless and 
having a bitter taste. 

It is hypnotic, anodyne, narcotic, nervous sedative, and anti- 
spasmodic. 

Used in eclampsia in bitches ; useful in painful cough ; relieves 
pain in spasmodic colic, pleurisy, and dyspnoea. Used to prevent 
straining in eversion of the rectum or uterus ; also used in *' thumps" 
(spasms of the diaphragm) and as an anaesthetic for surgical opera- 
tions on dogs. 

(a) 3 to 5 grains, (b) ^/jg to % grain. For surgical angesthesia 
1 to 2 grains are given hypodermically to dogs. 



308 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Give the composition and the uses of Fowler's solution of arsenic. 
State the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the dog. 
Fowler's solution (liquor potassii arsenitis) is an arsenical 
preparation of 1 per cent, strength. Its formula is as follows : 

Arsenous acid 1 part 

Potassium bicarbonate 2 parts 

Compound spirits of lavender 3 parts 

Distilled water 94 parts 

Used as a alterative and tonic in chronic intestinal catarrh, 
emaciation, chronic dyspnoea (heaves), chorea, chronic skin diseases, 
anaemia, rachitis, osteomalacia, etc. ; as a vermifuge for intestinal 
worms; used externally to remove warts. 

(a) 2 drachms to 1 ounce, (b) 2 to 10 minims. 

What is Pearson's solution? How is it prepared? Give its uses and 
dose. 

Liquor sodii arsenatis (Pearson's solution) is a solution of 
sodium arsenate. It is made the same as Fowler's solution, only 
sodium arsenate is used in place of potassium arsenite (potassium 
bicarbonate and arsenous acid). It is used for the same purposes 
and in the same doses as Fowler 's solution, but is less irritating and 
active. (See answer to preceding question.) 

Give the principal use of apomorphine for the dog. State how apomor- 
phine is administered and mention the dose for a 40-pound 
dog. 
Used as a prompt and powerful emetic. Usually given hypoder- 
mically. Dose for a 40-pound dog, '^/\^ grain. 

Give the physiologic actions and the uses of belladonna. 

Belladonna is a narcotic, mydriatic, antispasmodic, and anodyne. 
In small doses it is cardiac, respiratory, and spinal stimulant; in 
large doses, a paralyzer of the secretory and motor nerve-endings 
and a stimulator of the entire sympathetic system. 

It is used to check abnormal secretion in ptyalism, acute catarrhal 
conditions, and polyuria. Used as an antispasmodic in colic, tetanus, 
cough, bronchitis, and dyspnoea. It suppresses the symptoms of 
heaves, relaxes a contracted or rigid os, and allows of parturition. 
It is useful to relieve congestion in the beginning of acute inflam- 
matory diseases, as laminitis, pneumonia, and pleurisy. Used exter- 
nally in liniments for muscular pain. It is used in ophthalmology 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 309 

to dilate the pupil and paralyze accommodation for purposes of 
refraction ; to prevent or break up adhesions of the iris and inflam- 
matory conditions of the cornea. Atropine, the active principle 
of belladonna, is generally used in this work. 

Give the source of atropine and describe its action. 

Atropine is an alkaloid obtained from belladonna. It is the chief 
alkaloid of this drug and represents its action. (See answer to 
preceding question.) 

Name five antiseptics for wounds and give the strength in which each 
should be used. 
Corrosive sublimate, 1-1000 to 1-2000. 
Phenol, 3 to 5 per cent, solution. 
Creolin, 1 per cent, solution. 

Hydrogen peroxide, 50 per cent, solution or undiluted. 
Lysol, 1/^ to 2 per cent, solution. 

Mention four preparations of iron and state the dose of each for (a) 
the horse, (b) the dog. 
Ferrum reductum, (a) 1 to 3 drachms, (b) 1 to 5 grains. 
Ferri sulphas, (a) 3^ to 1 drachm, (b) % to 2 grains. 
Tr. ferri chloridi, (a) 2 to 8 drachms, (b) 2 to 20 minims. 
Ferri hydroxidum cum magnesii oxide, (a) 8 ounces, (b) 4 
drachms. 

State how benzoated lard is prepared and give its uses. 

Adeps benzoinatus is made by melting lard 1000 parts with 
benzoin 20 parts. The melting is accomplished by means of a water- 
bath. The temperature should not rise above 60° C, and should be 
continued for two hours. After straining, the mixture should be 
stirred until cool. 

It is used as a base for ointments. The benzoin acts as a preser- 
vative to prevent the lard from becoming rancid. 

What is (a) a hypnotic, (b) a mydriatic, (c) a myotic? Give an ex- 
ample of each. 

(a) An agent which produces sleep, without first causing excite- 
ment; e.g.f potassium bromide. 

(b) An agent which causes abnormal dilatation of the pupil; 
e.g., atropia. 

(c) An agent causing abnormal contraction of the pupil; e.g., 
opium. 



310 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

What is strychnine? Describe the actions and the uses of strychnine. 
State the hypodermic dose of strychnine for (a) the horse, 
(b) the dog. 

Strychnine is an alkaloid obtained from nux vomica. 

It is a nerve tonic, gastric tonic, stimulates respiration, secre- 
tion, and digestion; it increases peristalsis, stimulates both the 
motor and inhibitory apparatus of the heart, and raises arterial 
tension by stimulating the vasomotor centres, thus contracting the 
arterioles; full doses relax the arterioles and thus reduce blood- 
pressure. 

Used in paralysis, depression of the nervous system, atonic dys- 
jDepsia, heaves, diarrhoea due to relaxation of the bowels from lack 
of tone, in small doses; convalescence from debilitating diseases, 
collapse, heart-weakness, chloroform, syncope, narcotic poisoning, 
constipation, incontinence of the urine, etc. 

(a) One-half to one grain, (b) ^/ago to ^/eo grain. 

In what diseases of the horse should nux vomica be prescribed ? 'Give 
the dose of the fluidextract of nux vomica for (a) the horse, 
(b) the cow, (c) the sheep, (d) the pig, (e) the dog, (f) 
the cat. 
See answer to preceding question, uses of strychnine, 
(a) 1 drachm, (b) 2 drachms, (c) 20 minims, (d) 10 minims, 
(e) 2 minims, (f ) 1 minim. 

What is Goulard's extract? State how it is prepared and give its uses. 
Liquor plumbi subacetatis (Goulard's extract) is an aqueous 
liquid, containing in solution about 25 per cent, of lead subacetate, 
prepared by boiling together acetate of lead 180 parts, oxide of lead 
110 parts, in 1000 parts of water. It is an active astringent and 
sedative. Diluted with three parts of water, this agent is used for 
sprains, bruises, cuts, burns, scratches, grease-heel, skin diseases, 
eczema, canker of the ear in dogs, etc. 

What drugs are used internally and externally to check hemorrhage? 

Adrenalin, ergot, digitalis, turpentine, opium, bismuth, lead 
acetate, and saline infusions are used internally. 

Adrenalin, alum, ferric chloride, ferric sulphate, tannic acid, 
lead acetate, bismuth, and ether-sprays are used externally. 

Mention the methods by which temperature in fever may be reduced. 
Which method is the most rational and practical? 

The temperature in fever may be reduced by lessening the heat 
production with drugs such as phenacetin, antipyrine, acetanilide, 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 311 

quinine sulphate, salicylic acid, aconite, and digitalis, or by in- 
creasing the heat loss with alcohol, spiritus aetheris nitrosi, cold, 
and purgatives. The former method is better because it strikes 
more nearly at the source or cause, and the latter method stimulates 
the production of heat. 

Give the properties, the uses and the dose of potassium chlorate. 

Potassium chlorate occurs in colorless, monoclinic prisms. It 
easily explodes on trituration with sugar, sulphur, tannin, and char- 
coal. It is soluble in 1 to 16 parts of cold and 1 to 2 parts of boiling 
water ; antiseptic, antacid, alterative, sialogogue, diuretic, febrifuge, 
and cardiac depressant, and is used in laryngitis, pharyngitis, 
stomatitis, and in febrile conditions of a catarrhal nature. Dose, 
2 to 8 drachms. 

What is oil of turpentine? How is it obtained? Give its medicinal 
use. 
It is a volatile oil, distilled from turpentine. Turpentine is 
obtained from the ordinary yellow pine (Pinus palustrus) and other 
varieties of pine. For uses, see following question. 

Give the external use and the internal use of oil of turpentine. State 
how oil of turpentine should be administered. 

Used externally as a counterirritant, rubefacient, or stimulant 
in sprains, arthritis, pleurisy, peritonitis, spasmodic colic, etc. 

Internally, it is used as an antiferment in flatulency, anthel- 
mintic for round- and tapeworms, stimulating and antiseptic expec- 
torant in chronic bronchitis, genito-urinary antiseptic in purulent 
nephritis, cystitis, and urethritis. Used extensively in internal 
hemorrhage and purpura hemorrhagica. Injected intratracheally 
for lung worms in calves and lambs. 

It is usually administered in oil or milk. (Its irritating proper- 
ties are greatly overestimated, however, as it can be given by the 
mouth undiluted with no inconvenience to the patient.) 

What are alkaloids? 

Alkaloids are active nitrogenous principles existing in plants, 
extracted by chemical art. They are organic bases of alkaline reac- 
tion, forming salts with acids, and as salts are very soluble in 
water. 

Mention six alkaloids used in veterinary medicine. State the dose and 
the mode of administering each. 

1. Morphine: Morphine sulphate, 3 grains, hypodermically. 

2. Strychnine : Strychnine sulphate, 1 grain, hypodermically. 



312 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

3. Quinine : Quinine sulphate, 2 drachms, per os. 

4. Cocaine: Cocaine hydrochloride, 5 grains, hypodermically 
or intramuscularly. 

5. Atropine: Atropine sulphate, 1 grain, hypodermically. 

6. Arecoline : Arecoline hydrobromide, 1 grain, hypodermically. 

Name three alkaloids and state the source of each. 

Pilocarpine, obtained from pilocarpus (Jaborandi). 
Ergotine, obtained from ergot. 
Digitaline, obtained from digitalis. 

What are the medicinal uses of gentian root? State the dose for (a) 
the horse, (b) the ox. 
Stomachic in indigestion, debility, and convalescence. Used to 
relieve acute and chronic flatulence. 

(a) 2 drachms to 1 ounce, (b) 1 to 2 ounces. 

What are the medicinal uses of ginger root? State the dose for (a) the 
horse, (b) the ox. 
Stomachic and carminative in atonic indigestion of horses and 
ruminants. Used to aid the action of purgatives and prevent 
griping. 

(a) 2 drachms to 1 ounce, (b) 1 to 4 ounces. 

What is eserine? State the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the ox, (c) the 
dog. 

Eserine is the principal alkaloid of physostigma. 
(a) 1 to 2 grains, (b) 1 to 3 grains, (c) Vioo to V25 grain (hypo- 
dermically). 

What are the actions and uses of eserine? 

Eserine is a muscular stimulant ; it stimulates secretion in general, 
excites nausea and vomiting, and is a laxative or purgative by stimu- 
lating the muscular coat of the intestines as well as the intestinal 
secretion. It also acts as a myotic and decreases intra-ocular tension. 
Used in constipation due to torpor of the bowels, in impaction 
colic and parturient paresis. Externally, in the eye to decrease 
intra-ocular pressure and contract the pupil in periodic ophthalmia, 
where it is sometimes alternated with atropine to prevent adhesions 
of the iris and diminish pain and congestion. 

State the principal alkaloid of the Calabar bean and give its dose and 
uses. 
Eserine (physostigmine) is the principal alkaloid of Calabar 
bean or physostigma. (See answer to preceding questions.) 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 313 

What blistering agents are adapted to the different domestic animals? 
Cantharides for the horse, cantharides and red mercuric iodide 
for hovines, and mustard for dogs and sheep. 

What are the indications for the use of counterirritants ? Name five 
counterirritants. 

1. To overcome congestion and inflammation in remote parts. 

2. To promote absorption of inflammatory products, locally. 

3. To relieve pain. 

4. To stimulate the heart, respiratory and nervous functions. 
Cantharides, iodine, mustard, turpentine, and red mercuric 

iodide. 

What is the best antiferment in gastric flatulence? State the dose of 
the antiferment and give the method of its administration. 
Sodium hyposulphite. Dissolve 4 to 12 ounces in one quart of 
water and give as a drench. 

What is chloral hydrate? How is it prepared? 

Chloral hydrate is a crystalline solid, occurring in colorless, 
transparent crystals, having an aromatic, penetrating, and slightly 
acrid odor and a bitterish, caustic taste. It is freely soluble in 
water, alcohol, ether, and volatile oils. 

It is prepared by passing dry chlorine gas into alcohol until the 
latter is saturated. It is purified by distillation with sulphuric 
acid, and then with lime. 

Give the actions and uses of chloral hydrate. What is the dose for the 
horse? 

It is a local irritant, antiseptic and stimulant. Internally, it has 
a primary stimulating effect on the circulatory and central nervous 
systems, but secondarily it depresses both. 

The drug is used to lessen irritability and produce sleep. Its 
principal use is in spasmodic conditions such as colics, coughs, 
chorea, tetanus, etc. It is one of the best antidotes to strychnine 
poisoning. Used by some as a general anaesthetic, but is not as 
reliable as chloroform. 

Dose for the horse, 1 to 2 ounces. Four ounces are given for 
anaesthetic purposes. 

Give the principal uses of viburnum prunifoliimi. 

It is used as a tonic, antispasmodic, nerve sedative, and anti- 
abortive. It is principally used to prevent habitual abortion. 



314 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Give the treatment of sunstroke. 

Remove patient to a cool, shady place ; apply ice-bags to the head 
and neck ; cold water enemas are useful. Give antipyretics and heart 
stimulants, acetanilide, 2 drachms dissolved in 1 ounce of aromatic 
spirits of ammonia, every two or three hours. Subcutaneous injec- 
tions of camphor, ether, alcohol, atropine, hyoscyamine, caffeine, 
veratrine, strychnine, etc., have been employed for their stimulating 
effect. 

Name (a) one powdered diuretic, (b) one liquid diuretic, (c) a blood 
tonic, (d) a nerve tonic. 
(a) Nitrate of potassium, (b) spirits nitrous ether, (c) iron 
sulphate, (d) nux vomica. 

Name (a) two general stimulants, (b) three heart stimulants. State 
the dose of each. 

(a) Alcohol, 2 to 3 ounces; aqua ammonia, 2 to 4 drachms. 

(b) F. E. digitalis, 1 drachm; Tr. strophanthus, 1 to 2 drachms; 
spirit of nitroglycerin, % to 1 drachm. 

Describe the effects of the external applications of bismuth salts. 
Give the physiological actions of bismuth subnitrate. What 
is its dose? 
No effect on the unbroken skin. They have a protecting, seda- 
tive, astringent, and antiseptic action on raw surfaces- 
Bismuth subnitrate exerts a sedative, astringent, and antiseptic 
effect throughout the alimentary canal by reason of its insolubility 
and coating action on the walls of the same. It is used in vomiting, 
diarrhoea, and intestinal fermentation. It is comparatively harm- 
less and can be given in relatively large doses. Dose for the horse, 
2 drachms. 

Mention three iodides and state the dose of each. 
Potassium iodide, 2 to 4 drachms. 
Sodium iodide, 2 to 4 drachms. 
Ammonium iodide, 2 to 4 drachms. 

Name two remedies that are used to promote intestinal peristalsis. 
Aloes and calomel. 

Where are cantharides chiefly obtained? Give the active principles of 
cantharides. 

Cantharides is obtained from the insect Cantharis vesicatoria, or 
Spanish fly, which is found in the southern part of Europe, Ger- 
many, and Russia. The active principle is cantharidin. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 315 

Give the actions and uses of heroin. 

Heroin increases the inspiratory and expiratory force and lessens 
the number of the respiratory movements. It is a general motor 
depressant and anodyne and exerts a special sedative influence on 
the respiratory mucous membranes. 

What preparations of copper are used in veterinary medicine and for 
what purposes? 

Arsenite of copper is used in diarrhoea, dysentery, scours, and in 
relaxation of the muscular wall of the intestines, also in chorea 
in dogs. 

Sulphate of copper used internally as an emetic; antidote for 
phosphorus, atony of the bowels, diarrhoea, and ascariasis. Exter- 
nally, it is used as a stimulant and caustic, syptic in foot-rot, granu- 
lar eyelids, conjunctivitis, etc. 

Acetate of copper is an efficient vermifuge in ascariasis in the 
horse. 

Give the properties of pepsin. How is pepsin prepared? 

Pepsin occurs as a fine, white or yellowish-white amorphous 
powder, or pale yellowish, transparent scales or grains, free from 
offensive odor, having a mildly acidulous and slightly saline taste, 
followed by a slight bitter taste. It is soluble in about 100 parts 
water, but more soluble if the water is acidulated with hydrochloric 
acid. It is used in indigestion in young animals. It is prepared by 
macerating the mucous membrane of a pig's stomach for several 
days in a weak aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid. The pepsin 
is precipitated by adding sodium chloride, and is then removed, 
pressed, and dried. 

Name the active principle of three of the following : aconite, belladonna, 
ergot, digitalis and opium. 
Aconite: Aconitine. 
Belladonna: Atropine. 
Ergot: Ergotine. 

Digitalis: Digitaline, digitoxin, digitalein, digitin, digitoniii. 
Opium : Morphine and codeine. 

Discriminate between the physiological action of chloroform and that 

of ether. Mention the dangers in anaesthesia. How may 

these dangers be avoided? 

Chloroform is more irritating to the mucous membranes and 

causes violent gastro-enteritis if administered undiluted; it is less 

stimulating and more depressing to the heart and circulation; for 



316 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

inhalation it requires more air, is less irritating to the respiratory 
membranes than ether, is more prompt in action, has a shorter pre- 
liminary stage of excitement, causes a more profound narcosis, and 
is less nauseating than ether. 

(For dangers in anaesthesia, see p. 258.) 

Give the name and the dose of a vermifuge for (a) the horse, (b) the 
cow, (c) the dog. 
(a) Tartar emetic, 5i; (b) ferri sulphas, 3iss; (c) areca nut, 
2 grains per pound of body weight. 

Name some economic antiseptics for veterinary use, internal and 
external. 

Internal: Phenol, creolin, sodium hyposulphite, salicylic acid. 
External: Phenol, creolin, corrosive sublimate, potassium per- 
manganate, and boric acid. 

Define laxative, saline purgative, drastic purgative, cholagogue purga- 
tive. Give an example of each. 

Laxative: A drug which slightly increases intestinal action 
chiefly by stimulating peristalsis. Example, olive oil. 

Saline purgative: A drug which excites peristaltic action by 
increasing secretions and preventing reabsorption. Example, 
sodium sulphate. 

Drastic purgative: A drug which greatly increases peristalsis 
and secretion, violently stimulates intestinal contractions, and pro- 
duces copious, frequent, fluid discharges. Example, croton oil. 

Cholagogue purgative : A drug which stimulates the flow of bile, 
causing green-colored stools. Example, podophyllum. 

Mention five emetics and state the dose of each for the dog. 

Mustard, 3i-ii; sodium chloride, 5i-iv; zinc sulphate, gr. v-xx; 
apomorphine, gr. Vs-Vs ^7 ^^^ mouth, gr. V2o-^/io hypodermically ; 
tartar emetic, gr. i-ii. 

Mention five different kinds of medicine classified according to their 
general action and state what the general action is in each 
case. 

Strychnine, stimulant. 
Opium, depressant and narcotic. 
Arsenic, tonic. 
Ether, anaesthetic. 
Belladonna, antispasmodic. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 317 

Describe in detail the method by which you would administer a dose of 

Epsom salts to a cow. 

Dissolve the salts in water and put the solution in a long-necked 

bottle. Raise the cow 's head so that the nostrils are on a level with 

the eyes, but no higher. Gradually pour the solution into the mouth, 

watching carefully for faulty deglutition. 

Give the name and mention the use of each of the following : FegPgOg, 
FeSo^, Fe.Cle. 

FegPoOg (iron sulphate) is used in diseases of bone, diabetes, and 
nervous exhaustion. 

FeS04 (iron sulphate) is used locally as an astringent and inter- 
nally as a haematinic and tonic in anaemia ; also used as a vermifuge 
and in chronic catarrhal conditions. 

FcsCle (iron chloride) is used as a tonic in ansemia, astringent in 
chronic pharyngitis and laryngitis, and externally as a styptic. 

What is the general action of iodine? State the dose (a) for the horse, 
(b) for the dog. 

Alterative, resolvent, and expectorant, internally; stimulant, 
irritant, vesicant, and antiseptic, externally. 
(a) 15 grains to 1 drachm, (b) ^/^o to 1 grain. 

Give the source, general action and the dose of podophyllum. 

Obtained from the rhizome and roots of podophyllum pellatum 
Linne (mandrake or May apple). 

General action is a cholagogue cathartic. Dose for horse, 3i-ii. 

Name the different kinds of aloes. 

Barbadoes and Socotrine aloes are official. 
Cape aloes is non-official. 

Name two coal-tar products used to reduce temperature. 

Antipyrine and phenacetin. 

Give the properties and the uses of lobelia. 

Lobelia is obtained from the leaves and tops of Lobelia inflata. 
Its action depends on its alkaloid, lobeline. It has an acrid, nau- 
seous taste and very unpleasant odor ; it is expectorant, diaphoretic, 
purgative, emetic, antispasmodic, and narcotic. Lobelia is very 
useful in asthma in dogs, heaves in horses, and dry coughs in general. 

Mention a motor excitant of (a) cardiac muscle, (b) intestinal muscle. 
State in each case the dose for the horse and for the cow. 

(a) Digitaline: Horse, 14 grain; cow, I/2 grain. 

(b) Pilocarpine: Horse, 3 to 5 grains; cow, 5 to 10 grains. 



318 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

State the dose and the general physiological action of cocaine. 

Dose for the horse, 5 to 10 grains. Not much used internally. 
In small doses it is a cerebral, cardiac, respiratory, and nervous 
stimulant and diuretic. It is a powerful local anaesthetic, and is used 
in this connection almost entirely. 

Give the source, preparation and uses of adrenalin. 

Obtained from the suprarenal glands of the sheep or ox. Pre- 
pared by freeing from fat, cleaning, drying, and powdering. Used 
to arrest hemorrhage from wounds, mucous membranes, and cavities 
of the body. It is used to render the field of operation bloodless 
in minor surgery, in inflammatory conditions of the eye and nose. 
Employed internally to check bleeding from the stomach, intestines, 
lungs, and uterus. 

What is the dose of adrenalin for (a) the horse, (b) the dog. 

In solution 1-1000, intravenously, (a) 3i-iv, (b) 10 to 60 minims. 

What is tar? Give the uses and the actions of tar. 

Tar is an empyreumatic oleoresin, obtained by the destructive 
distillation of the wood of various species of pines, especially that 
of Finns palustris. 

It is an antiseptic, stimulant expectorant. Externally, antiseptic 
and parasiticide. Used internally in cough mixtures for chronic 
bronchitis and heaves. By inhalation (burning on hot coals) it is 
used for its antiseptic and stimulating effects in bronchitis, distem- 
per, strangles, etc. Externally, it is used with sulphur and linseed 
oil in eczema and mange in horses and cattle. A common hoof dress- 
ing for diseases of the feet in horses. 

Name three acid tonics. 

Phosphoric acid, hydrochloric acid, and nitric acid. 

Mention six diuretics and state the dose of each for (a) the horse, (b) 
the cow, (c) the dog. 

1. Potassium nitrate, (a) % ounce, (b) 1 ounce, (c) 10 grains. 

2. Spirits nitrous ether, (a) 2 ounces, (b) 3 ounces, (c) % 
drachm. 

3. F. E. digitalis, (a) % drachm, (b) 1 drachm, (c) % drachm. 

4. Potassium citrate, (a) % ounce, (b) 1 ounce, (c) 10 grains. 

5. Potassium acetate, (a) % ounce, (b) 1 ounce, (c) 10 grains. 

6. Balsam copaiba, (a) 4 drachms, (b) 1 ounce, (c) % drachm. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 319 

What is cascara sagrada ? Give its uses and state the dose for the dog. 

Cascara sagrada is an active cathartic obtained from the bark 

of Rhamnus purshiana (California buckthorn). It is used in dogs 

in doses of 5 to 30 grains to overcome chronic constipation and as a 

stomachic. 

What is mustard? State its uses in medicine. 

Commercial mustard is a powder obtained from Sinapis alba 
semina and Sinapis nigra semina, which produce white and black 
mustard respectively. It is an irritant or counterirritant, rube- 
facient, vesicant, or suppurant, according to the manner in which 
it is used. Used internally as an emetic for dogs and pigs. Exter- 
nally, it is used as a counterirritant in laryngitis, bronchitis, pneu- 
monia, pleurisy, colic, enteritis, peritonitis, etc. 

Name (a) a drug that contracts the pupil of the eye, (b) a drug that 
dilates the pupil of the eye. 

(a) Physostigmine, (b) atropine. 

What is the effect of massage? When is this treatment advisable? 

Massage exerts many of the effects of counterirritants, and, 
moreover, assists in mechanically relieving overloaded lymph- vessels 
and veins. It increases metabolism, promotes absorption, stretches 
adhesions, and relieves pain. 

It is advisable in case of oedematous swellings, as in the joints, 
legs, and udder (mastitis) ; also useful in overcoming muscular 
atrophy, following azoturia or from other causes, and to relieve pain 
in neuralgic attacks. 

State the uses, dose and action of nitrate of potash in the treatment of 
the horse and cow. 
Potassium nitrate is used in pneumonia, influenza, mastitis, 
pharyngitis, laryngitis, dropsical conditions, and many febrile con- 
ditions of the horse and cow. Externally, as a refrigerant. It 
possesses an alterative, febrifuge, diuretic, cardiac sedative, dia- 
phoretic, and feebly laxative action. 

Dose for the horse, I/2 ounce, and for the cow, 1 ounce. 

State the actions, uses and dose of sugar of lead. 

Plumbi acetas, acetate of lead, or sugar of lead, is astringent, 
haemostatic, styptic, anodyne, local sedative, and desiccant. Used 
internally to check hemorrhage, diarrhoea, dysentery, and chronic 
catarrhal bronchitis; externally, to check superficial inflammation, 
tendonitis, arthritis, eczema, scratches, keratitis, etc. Dose, 1 drachm. 



320 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

State the physiologic effects, uses and dose of ether. 

Etlier is anodyne, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, anthelmintic; a 
cardiac, respiratory, and cerebral stimulant, an anaesthetic and a 
general diffusible stimulant. 

Used in flatulency, spasmodic colic, intestinal worms, and as a 
general ansesthetic in surgery. Small doses are stimulant to the 
heart and nervous system and are useful in collapse, exhaustion, etc. 

How are fluidextracts prepared? 

Prepared by extracting (percolation) a vegetable drug with 
alcohol, or alcohol and water, then concentrating the resulting solu- 
tion by evaporation until one minim of the fluidextract represents 
one grain of the original drug. 

Give the preparations of ammonia, stating the dose of each. 
Aromatic spirits of ammonia, 1 ounce. 
Ammonium carbonate, 2 drachms. 
Ammonium chloride, 2 drachms. 

Give the source of ergot and the dose for the horse and dog. 

Obtained from the smut (a fungous growth) on rye. Dose of the 
fluidextract: For the horse, ,% to 1 ounce; for the dog, % to 1 
drachm. 

Give the treatment of purpura hemorrhagica. 

Both general and local treatment are indicated. 

General treatment includes the providing of good hygienic sur- 
roundings and proper diet; an easily digested and laxative diet is 
best. Most commonly used drugs are : potassium bichromate, potas- 
sium chlorate, digitalis, turpentine, camphor, salicylic acid, quinine 
sulphate, iron preparations, strychnine, and ergot. 

Local treatment is directed toward swellings which threaten 
suffocation, and the antiseptic handling of wounds. Tracheotomy 
may be necessary. The advocates of serum therapy claim excellent 
results with polyvalent vaccines, antistreptococcic sera, etc. 

Give the medicinal treatment of rachitis in the dog. 

Calcium phosphate, or the syrup of calcium lactophosphate, is 
especially indicated. Iron in the form of the syrup of the iodide, 
and cod-liver oil are beneficial. 

Define (a) diuretic, (b) diaphoretic, (c) hypnotic, (d) aphrodisiac. 
Give an example of each. 
(a) A drug which increases the secretion of urine, potassium 
nitrate. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 321 

(b) A drug which increases the secretion of sweat, pilocarpine. 

(c) A drug which produces sleep, potassium bromide. 

(d) A drug which stimulates sexual appetite and function, can- 
nabis indica. 

Name three preparations of zinc and state the uses of each. 

1. Zinc chloride is used as a caustic in chronic ulcers and fistulas, 
and as an astringent in wounds; also used in conjunctivitis and 
keratitis. 

2. Zinc sulphate is used as an emetic for dogs and pigs. Its prin- 
cipal use is externally as an astringent (white lotion). 

3. Zinc oxide is used as a dusting powder for wounds and ex- 
coriated surfaces. Used in the form of ointment for its desiccating, 
astringent and protective properties. Occasionally given internally 
in chorea and diarrhoea. 

Describe tannic acid. Give the source and the actions of tannic acid. 

Tannic acid is a light, yellowish powder, odorless, or having a 
faint characteristic odor, and a strongly astringent taste. Soluble 
in 1 part of water. It is obtained from nut-gall. It is a powerful 
astringent, styptic, and coagulates albumin. 

Compare the action of morphine on the horse with its action on the 

dog. State the dose in each case. 

Morphine often causes cerebral and motor excitement, sweating, 

and dilatation of the pupil in the horse. In the dog it seldom causes 

excitement and sweating, but does cause contraction of the pupil, 

nausea, and cerebral depression. 

Hypodermic dose for the horse. 3 to 5 grains; for the dog, ^/^^ to 
1/4 grain. 

What is (a) a tonic, (b) an alterative? Give an example of each. 

(a) A tonic is a drug which produces a permanent, though 
scarcely perceptible, excitement of all the vital functions. Example, 
iron. 

(b) An alterative is a drug which alters the process of nutrition 
and excretion and restores the normal functions of an organ or of the 
system; e.g., iodide of potassium. 

Give the properties, actions and uses of boric acid. 

Occurs in transparent, white, scaly crystals; odorless, faintly 
bitter taste, permanent in the air, and feebly acid. Soluble in 26 
parts cold water, 3 parts of warm water, and in 15 parts alcohol. 

It is a non-volatile, unirritating antiseptic, deodorant, and 
astringent, and is used in all cases where an antiseptic is indicated. 
21 



322 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Particularly useful as a vaginal and uterine douche and to flush the 
bladder in cystitis. Used in conjunctivitis and keratitis, and is given 
internally in diarrhoea, dog distemper, and cystic catarrh. 

What are expectorants? Name two classes o£ expectorants and give 
an example of each class. 
Expectorants are agents which modify the secretion of the 
mucous membrane of the respiratory tract, and promote its 
expulsion. 

Two classes: nauseating (ipecac) and stimulating (ammonium 
chloride). 

Name three vegetable bitters. State the dose for (a) the horse, (b) 
the dog. 

Gentian, (a) 3^ to 1 ounce, (b) 5 to 30 grains. 

Quassia (fluidextract), (a) 1 to 2 ounces, (b) 14 to 1 drachm. 

Cascarilla, (a) 1^ to 1 ounce, (b) 10 to 30 grains. 

These bitters are useful in promoting the ap'petite in atonic indi- 
gestion, chronic gastro-intestinal catarrh, anaemia, debility, and 
during convalescence from acute diseases, as influenza, pneumonia, 
etc. They also 'possess some vermicidal action, especially quassia, 
infusions of which are used as enemas for rectal worms. 

They are contra-indicated in acute inflammatory conditions of 
the digestive tract, as they are mild irritants. 

Name three vegetable cathartics. Explain briefly the action of each. 
State the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the cow, (c) the dog. 

1. Aloes. Stimulates peristalsis and the flow of bile, (a) 8 to 10 
drachms, (b) 1 to 2 ounces, (c) 20 to 60 grains. 

2. Oleum lini. Acts mechanically by lubricating the bowels, 
(a) y2 to 1 pint, (b) 1 to 2 pints, (c) % to 2 ounces. 

3. Oleum ricini. Acts by increasing secretions and mechanically, 
(a) 1 to 2 pints, (b) 2 to 3 pints, (c) ^ to 2 ounces. Seldom used 
in horses and cows. 

Name three drugs that reduce temperature and explain the action of 
each. 

1. Acetanilide : prevents waste and heat production, by increas- 
ing radiation and by depressing the activity of the heat centres. 

2. Aconite: causes vascular dilatation, thus increases heat loss 
by radiation; retards circulation and thus lessens heat production. 

3. Quinine : by its antiseptic properties lessens reflex excitability, 
diminishes oxidation, and depresses the heat centres. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 323 

Describe the treatment of a case of eczema in the dog, explaining fully. 

In the erythematous, papular, and vesicular stages zinc oxide 
ointment or zinc oxide and starch dusting powder may be used. 
In the weeping stage 6 per cent, solution of nitrate of silver or some 
desiccant powder such as boric acid, lycopodium, or bismuth sub- 
gallate is used to check the weeping. Chronic eczema is treated with 
oil of cade, sulphuretted potash, Peruvian balsam, or creolin in suit- 
able dilutions. Internally, Fowler's solution of arsenic is of great 
benefit. 

In all forms dietetic measures are employed ; a laxative diet and 
occasional doses of sodium sulphate help materially. Cleanliness 
is important, and in this connection bathing with a non-irritating 
soap and water is paramount. 

Describe a treatment for tapeworms in the dog. 

Fast the dog for 24 hours. Give oleoresin aspidium, 15 to 60 
minims, and repeat this dose in three hours. Nine hours later give 
a purgative dose of castor oil. If the head of the taenia is not ex- 
pelled, repeat the treatment three to five days later. 

What are the actions and the uses of ipecac? State the dose for (a) 
the horse, (b) the dog. 
A nauseating expectorant, emetic, diaphoretic, hasmostatic, ster- 
nutatory, stomachic. Used in bronchitis, dysentery, jaundice; also 
used to induce vomition in dogs and pigs. Dose (a) % to 2 drachms, 
(b) as expectorant, i/4 to 2 grains; as an emetic, 5 to 30 grains. 

Discuss venesection. What therapeutic measures may be used in place 
of venesection? 

Venesection, or blood-letting, is employed chiefiy to rapidly 
relieve conditions associated with a high arterial pressure and local 
engorgement of some organ. It reduces temperature and relieves 
congestion, dyspnoea, and cyanotic conditions. Venesection is 
employed in plethoric animals only, in acute pleurisy, pulmonary 
congestion, acute laminitis, urticaria, acute cerebritis or meningitis, 
parturient apoplexy in cows, etc. It is also employed in toxaemias 
to remove the blood and its contained poison. Four to six and often 
eight quarts are drawn from the horse. 

Circulatory depressants as veratrum viride or aconite cause a 
general reduction of arterial tension and relieve local congestion. 
Cathartics, diuretics, and diaphoretics abstract fluid from the blood- 
vessels and thus lower blood-pressure. Notable among these are: 
arecoline, potassium nitrate, and pilocarpine. 



324 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Compare the action of digitalis with the action of aconite on the heart. 

Digitalis slows the heart and increases its force, whereas aconite 
slows the heart but reduces its force. 

Give the action and the uses of chloroform. State the internal dose 
for the horse and for the dog. 

Chloroform is irritant, antiseptic, parasiticide, carminative, anti- 
spasmodic, and analgesic. Locally in spray and internally by inhala- 
tion, an anaesthetic. 

It is used in dystokia to prevent straining ; in chronic diarrhoea, 
taeniasis, spasmodic cough and colic. Externally, in liniments as an 
anodyne and counterirritant in muscular rheumatism and sprains; 
by inhalation, a general anaesthetic in surgical operations. 

Dose : For the horse, 1 to 2 drachms ; for the dog, 2 to 20 minims. 

Describe the treatment of a case of mange in the dog. 

Bathe with warm water and green soap to remove all dirt and 
scabs. Clip the hair if it is long. Apply daily for four days a mix- 
ture composed of Peruvian balsam 15 parts, creolin 5 parts, and 
alcohol 80 parts. Bathe again and repeat the application until the 
skin appears normal. 

Mention the chief uses of areca. Name two constituents of areca and 
give their therapeutic uses. 
Areca is astringent in small doses, but large amounts induce 
catharsis ; an effective vermicide for dogs, being destructive to both 
tape- and round-worms. 

Two of its constituents are arecoline and red tannic acid. Are- 
coline is used as a quick-acting cathartic in colic, acute laminitis, etc. 

What is the chief value of aspidium? State the dose for the dog. 
What precautions must be taken when administering 
aspidium? 
Chief value is its taeniacide action. Dose of oleoresin aspidium 
(male fern) for the dog is 15 to 60 minims. 

It should not be given with oils ; they aid its absorption. 

Give the actions and the uses of cannabis indica. State the dose for 
the horse and for the dog. 

Cannabis indica is an antispasmodic, anodyne, and narcotic; a 
cerebrospinal stimulant and aphrodisiac ; increases mental and motor 
activity, stimulates vasomotor nerves, and depresses sensation. 

It is used to relieve pain, spasm, and nervous irritability. Ser- 
viceable in colic, tetanus, chorea, and irritable cough. Dose of the 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 325 

fluidextract : For the horse, 4 to 6 drachms; for the dog, 2 to 10 
minims. 

Name three anthelmintics. State the dose of each for (a) the horse, 
(b) the dog. 
Oleoresin aspidium, (a) 3 to 6 drachms, (b) 15 to 60 minims. 
Oil of turpentine, (a) 2 to 4 ounces, (b) l^ to 4 drachms. 
Santonin, (a) i/o ounce, (b) 2 to 20 grains. 

Define (a) rubefacient, (b) sedative, (c) mydriatic. Give an example 
of each. 

(a) A drug that produces slight redness of the skin, as mustard. 

(b) A drug that lessens functional activity of organs, lowers 
motility, and diminishes pain, thereby exerting a soothing influence 
on the whole system, as gelsemium. 

(c) An agent which dilates the pupil, as atropine. 

What is tartar emetic? Describe the actions and the uses of tartar 
emetic. State the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the dog. 

Tartar emetic (antimonii et potassii tartras) is prepared by 
mixing cream of tartar, antimony trioxide, and water. 

It is a systemic and local emetic, diaphoretic, cardiac, and arterial 
sedative, gastro-intestinal irritant, expectorant, and vermicide. 

Used as an emetic in dogs ; in the dry stage of bronchitis and for 
intestinal worms in horses. 

Dose, (a) % to 2 drachms, (b) emetic 1 to 4 grains, expectorant 
Vio to 14 grain. 

What is pyoktanin? What are its uses? 

'^Pyoktanin" is the trade name for methylene blue, an aniline 
dye. It is antiseptic and astringent, and is used in strength of 
1-1000 to 1-100 for ulcerated cornea, conjunctivitis, ulcers, and 
pus-secreting sores in general. Given internally, it is eliminated 
chiefly by the kidneys, rendering the urine blue and exerting an anti- 
septic action on the urinary tract, hence it is serviceable in nephritis, 
cystitis, urethritis, etc. 

Give the source, the actions and the uses of balsam of Peru. State the 
dose for (a) the horse, (b) the dog. 
Balsam of Peru is obtained in Central America from Toluifera 
pereircB. It is stimulant, antiseptic, and parasiticide externally; 
stomachic, carminative, and antiseptic internally. Used in chronic 
eczema, mange, lousiness, ringworm, ulcers, chronic bronchitis, pye- 
litis, and cystitis. 

Dose, (a) 1 ounce, (b) 10 to 30 minims. 



326 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Describe the treatment of a case of mammitis in the cow. 

Give a laxative (Epsom salts, 1 to 2 pounds). After purging, 
give potassium nitrate in one-ounce doses, twice daily. Apply hot 
fomentations several times daily, and follow each application with a 
cooling, astringent lotion, such as Burrow's lotion, in the early 
stages. A suspensory bandage is serviceable to hold packs and afford 
relief to the patient. Afterwards, emollients such as camphorated 
oil and cocoa butter are indicated. The udder should be milked 
thrice daily. If milking is painful, use a milk catheter and apply 
ointments containing belladonna extract. If abscesses threaten, 
apply poultices to hasten their development, open and use antiseptic 
measures. Gangrene calls for amputation at an early date. 

Describe permanganate of potassium. Give its actions and uses. 

Potassium permanganate is prepared by fusing together caustic 
potash, chlorate of potash, and oxide of manganese. It occurs as 
needle-shaped crystals of a deep-purple color, disagreeable, astrin- 
gent taste, soluble in 16 parts of water. 

It is a powerful oxidizing agent, hence it is antiseptic and 
deodorant. Full strength it is caustic ; diluted it is astringent. 

It is used to deodorize and disinfect foul-smelling wounds, nasal 
gleet, stomatitis, retained placenta, catarrhal endometritis (1-2000 
solution). Used to sterilize hands and instruments. Internally, it 
is used in flatulency, puerperal fever, septiceemia, and is an antidote 
for morphine and opium poisoning. 

Name four heart stimulants. Give their actions and state the dose of 
each for (a) the horse, (b) the dog. 

1. F. E. digitalis : Slows the heart and increases its force, (a) 
1 drachm, (b) 1 to 3 minims. 

2. Tr. strophanthus : Same action as digitalis, (a) 1 to 2 
drachms, (b) 2 to 10 minims. 

3. Spirits of glonoin: Accelerates the heart's action and lowers 
blood-pressure by dilating the arterioles, (a) % to 1 drachm, (b) 
% to 2 minims. 

4. Spts. ammonia aromaticus : Stimulates the vasomotor centres, 
(a) % to 1% ounces, (b) 5 to 60 minims. 

What is an emetic? To what animals should emetics be given? Give 
examples of emetics, stating the dose in each case. 
An emetic is a drug which produces vomiting. Emetics are given 
to dogs, cats, and pigs. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 327 

Ipecac : Dose for dogs, 5 to 30 grains ; swine, 15 to 30 grains ; cats, 
5 to 10 grains. 

Tartar emetic : Dogs, 1 to 4 grains ; swine, 4 to 10 grains ; cats, 
1 to 2 grains. 

Apomorphine hydrochloride: Subcutaneously, dogs, ^/go to ^/i© 
grain ; swine, ^/^g to ^1 ^ grain. 

What preparations of arsenic are most used in veterinary medicine? 
Arsenous acid. Fowler 's solution, and Pearson 's solution. 

Discuss the actions and the uses of the salicylic acid preparations. 

Actions; Antiseptic, antirheumatic, diaphoretic, cardiac de- 
pressant, antif erment, antipyretic, irritant, and astringent. 

Used especially in rheumatism and muscular soreness; also 
used in influenza, strangles, purpura hemorrhagica, and flatulency. 
Salicylic acid is used externally as an antiseptic in wound dressing, 
but is too expensive. Salol is used in diarrhoea, cystitis, urethritis, 
etc. 

Give the source, actions and uses of camphor. State the dose for (a) 
the horse, (b) the dog. 

Camphor is obtained from the branches and chipped wood of 
Cinnamomicm camphora, or camphor tree. The wood is exposed to 
the vapor of boiling water, and the volatilized camphor is condensed 
and refined by sublimation. It is also obtained by tapping the trees 
and collecting the exudate. 

Actions : Antispasmodic or nerve stimulant, anodyne, antiseptic, 
diaphoretic, a stimulating expectorant, a cerebral excitant or nar- 
cotic, a gastro-intestinal irritant, a rubefacient, a carminative, a 
respiratory and cardiac stimulant. 

Used in cough mixtures (electuaries) for acute bronchitis, pneu- 
monia, antispasmodic in colic, ''thumps,'^ chorea, etc. Influenza 
and dog distemper are benefited by the use of camphor. Given sub- 
cutaneously in collapse and exhaustion. Applied externally in lini- 
ments and oils for anodyne effect, also to check milk secretion. 

Dose, (a) 1 to 3 drachms, (b) 3 to 20 grains. 

Give the uses of caffeine in veterinary medicine. State the actions and 
the dose of caffeine. 
Used as an antidote to opium poisoning; dropsical swellings in 
dogs, heart stimulant in collapse. 

Its actions are cerebral and cardiac stimulant and diuretic. It 
increases blood-pressure. Dose for horse, 7 to 15 grains. 



328 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Give the actions and the uses of strophanthus. State the dose for (a) 
the horse, (b) the dog. 

Strophanthus slows and strengthens the heart, same as digitalis ; 
also has diuretic effect by increasing blood-supply to kidneys and 
by stimulating the secretory cells of the renal tubules. It is not 
cumulative like digitalis. Used in valvular disease of the heart, 
ascites, hydrothorax, chronic interstitial nephritis, and as a substi- 
tute for digitalis when the latter is losing its effect from repeated use. 

Dose of the tincture, (a) 1 to 2 drachms, (b) 2 to 10 minims. 

Give the actions and the uses of podophyllin. State the dose for (a) 
the horse, (b) the dog. 

Cholagogue cathartic, slow and uncertain. Used in constipation 
associated with jaundice and hepatic disorders. 
Dose, (a) 1 to 2 drachms, (b) 1 to 2 grains. 

Give the composition and the therapeutic uses of Dover's powder. 

Dover 's powder, or pulvis ipecachuanhae et opii, consists of ipecac 
10 per cent., powdered opium 10 per cent., sugar of milk 80 per cent. 
Used as a diaphoretic and expectorant in colds, early stages of 
acute bronchitis, and pneumonia. 

Discuss pilocarpine with reference to its composition, actions and 
uses. State the dose. 

Pilocarpus contains two alkaloids, pilocarpine and jaborine. 

Pilocarpus is a diaphoretic, sialogogue, cardiac depressant, my- 
otic, emetic, expectorant. The alkaloid pilocarpine is used to assist 
eserine in its action as a quick-acting cathartic in colic, etc. Pilo- 
carpus is used as an expectorant in bronchitis, and as a diaphoretic 
io stop chills and abort inflammatory diseases such as pneumonia, 
lymphangeitis, laminitis, azoturia, etc. 

Dose of the fluidextract for the horse, ,% to 1 ounce ; pilocarpine, 
hypodermically, 2 to 5 grains. 

Describe croton oil as to derivation, physical properties, action, uses, 
dose, toxic dose and antidote. 
Croton oil is a fixed oil expressed from the seed of Croton tiglium. 
It is a pale-yellow, viscid liquid, having a slight fatty odor and an 
oily, burning taste. Externally it is a powerful irritant, and inter- 
nally it is an intense gastro-intestinal irritant, causing drastic pur- 
gation. It is used as a counterirritant (cautiously). Internally it 
is given for its drastic purgative action to horses and cattle, in 
obstinate constipation when other remedies fail. 



i 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 329 

Dose for the horse, 15 to 30 drops in olive or linseed oil. Toxic 
dose, over 30 drops, although smaller amounts may produce gastro- 
enteritis with bloody stools and death. Should be given cautiously. 

Antidote : Demulcents, opium, and stimulants. 

Define cataplasm, counterirritant, fomentation. 

A cataplasm, or poultice, is a preparation for the local appli- 
cation of heat and moisture. 

A counterirritant is an irritant used against an existing irri- 
tation or inflammation by reflexlj^ causing contraction of the vessels 
in the congested or inflamed underlying parts. 

Fomentation refers to bathing parts with plain or medicated hot 
water, by means of sponge or cloth. 

Define disinfectant, antiseptic, deodorant. Explain the difference in 
the action of these agents. 

A disinfectant is an agent used to destroy microorganisms caus- 
ing infectious and contagious diseases, fermentation, and putre- 
faction. 

An antiseptic is an agent used to prevent the growth and de- 
velopment of the microorganisms causing fermentation, putrefac- 
tion, and disease, more especially the germs producing pus. 

A deodorant is an agent which destroys or counteracts a foul 
odor. 

Disinfectants, as a rule, are used on floors, buildings, grounds, 
etc. Antiseptics are less strongly germicidal and are used on or in 
the body. Most deodorants are disinfectants and antiseptics. 

Give a method of treatment of haemoglobinuria. 

Administer a ten-drachm aloes ball, followed by linseed oil if 
necessary. Provide plenty of bedding in a warm stable and roll 
patient over every four hours. If restless and violent, give chloral 
hydrate by the mouth, or cannabis indica intravenously-. Evacuate 
the bladder and rectum several times daily. Avoid slings unless 
patient can stand, in which case they are unnecessary. Enforced 
standing is liable to produce muscle rupture and intramuscular 
hemorrhage. Feed bran-mashes and supply plenty of fresh water. 

Give a method of treatment of lymphangeitis. 

Give a ten-drachm aloes ball, followed by one pint of linseed oil 
if necessary to purge. Feed bran-mashes and give plenty of fresh 
water, but no hay. Cold-water irrigation is indicated during the 
first 24 hours, afterwards hot fomentations. Apply Burrow's lotion 



330 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

after irrigating. Give a diuretic such as potassium hitrate, one-half 
ounce three times daily. Exercise is beneficial as soon as the patient 
is able to walk. Treat any wounds antiseptically. 

Give the treatment of constipation in a hog weighing about 200 pounds. 
Mention three methods of administering the medicine. 

Warm soap-water enemas will empty the posterior bowel and 
stimulate peristalsis. Add one ounce of sodium sulphate to the 
feed or drinking water or sprinkle upon the tongue. The stomach- 
tube may be used to administer liquid medicines to prevent aspira- 
tion of same into the lungs. Three ounces of castor oil may be given 
in this way. Subcutaneous injections of eserine sulphate in ^/5-grain 
doses may be useful in removing the impaction. 

Give the actions and the uses of resorcin. State the dose (a) for the 
horse, (b) for the dog. 

Resorcin is antiseptic externally, and internally possesses a 
slight local anaesthetic effect. Used externally in skin diseases, 
psoriasis especially. Internally used in gastric fermentation and 
indigestion, seldom. Dose, (a) 1 to 2 drachms, (b) 2 to 4 grains. 

What are the uses of protargol in veterinary medicine? Describe 
fully. 
Protargol is a non-official preparation of silver (8.3 per cent, 
strength) . It is used in acute catarrhal and purulent conjunctivitis 
in from one-half to ten per cent, aqueous solutions. It has an anti- 
septic and astringent action and is less irritating than silver nitrate 
solutions. 

Discuss potassium nitrate as to derivation, actions and uses. State 
the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the cow, (c) the dog. 

Potassium nitrate is found in the soils in certain regions and 
climates (India and Chile). It is made artificially by the putre- 
faction of animal or vegetable material in the presence of heat, mois- 
ture, oxygen, and alkaline or earthy bases. 

It is alterative, febrifuge, diuretic, and feebly laxative in action. 
It is also cardiac depressant, mildly refrigerant and diaphoretic, 
as well as expectorant. 

Used in febrile conditions such as pneumonia, influenza, laminitis, 
mastitis, etc. ; dropsical swellings in general. Externally, it is used 
for its refrigerant action in local inflammatory conditions. 

Dose, (a) % ounce, (b) 1 ounce, (c) 5 to 20 grains. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 331 

Give the action and the uses of sodium bicarbonate. State the dose 
for (a) the horse, (b) the dog. Discuss fully. 

Sodium bicarbonate is antacid, alterative, and mildly anodyne 
(locally). It increases the flow of the gastric juice and the fluidity 
of the bile, and dissolves mucus. 

Used in catarrh of the gastro-intestinal tract, gastric indigestion 
associated with flatulency and acidity. Often combined with calomel 
for its synergistic action. Dissolves membranes in croupous enteritis. 
Externally, it is used in solution to allay itching in skin diseases, 
burns, etc., and as an injection for leucorrhoea and chronic rhinitis. 

Dose, (a) 2 drachms to 2 ounces, (b) 10 grains to V2 drachm. 

What are (a) antiphlogistics, (b) antipyretics? Give an example of 
each. 

(a) Remedies employed to prevent the progress of inflammatory 
processes, either local or general, as ichthyol. 

(b) Agents which reduce high temperature in fever, as 
phenacetin. 

How do acids and alkalies act on the secretions? 

Acids lessen the secretion of the gastric juice and increase the 
secretion of saliva. Alkalies increase the flow of gastric juice and 
diminish the secretion of saliva. 

How are medicines classified? 

A physiological classification of medicines depends upon their 
action, whether general or local. Drugs having a general action 
may be subdivided into stimulants, sedatives, tonics, and alteratives. 
Drugs acting locally may be classified according to the part or parts 
upon which they act; for instance, cardiac stimulants, cerebral 
excitants, gastric sedatives, etc. 

Name agents that prominently affect the alimentary canal or its con- 
tents. 
Aloes, calomel, bismuth subnitrate, and opium. 

Name agents that prominently affect the respiratory organs. 
Lobelia, ipecac, belladonna, veratrum, and ether. 

Name agents that prominently aflFect the follicular or glandular organs. 
Pilocarpine, belladonna, eserine, and arecoline. 

Name agents that prominently affect the nervous system. 
Strychnine, opium, chloral, and ether. 



332 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Name agents that prominently affect the organs of reproduction. 

Ergot, cannabis indica, cantharides, and viburnum prunifolium. 

Name agents whose actions are prominently chemical. 

Acids, alkalies, and caustics. 

Name agents whose actions are prominently mechnical. 
Linseed oil, petrolatum, and acacia. 

Describe saline infusion, three methods of introduction and three indi- 
cations for its use. 

Saline infusion refers to the introduction of a solution of sodium 
chloride into the animal's body to replace the normal blood-plasma 
which has been lost by hemorrhage or has been withdrawn for thera- 
peutic purposes. The solution which is used consists of 0.6 of 1 per 
cent, sodium chloride in sterile distilled water. 

The fluid may be introduced by (1) intravenous injection, (2) 
injections into subcutaneous tissues (hypodermoclysis), (3) rectal 
injection (enteroclysis), (4) intraperitoneal injection. 

Saline infusions are used in cases of excessive purging where a 
large amount of fluid is lost ; in severe hemorrhage ; in certain blood- 
poisoning diseases the patient may be bled to rid the body of some 
of the toxin present, and the fluidity of the blood restored by this 
method. 

Prescription Writing 

Write a prescription for a purgative. 

Jan. 2, 1914. 
For Mr. Brown's bay horse. 

Aloes barbadensis 3 x 

Hydrargyri chloridi mitis gr. t^cx 

Pulveris zingiberis 3 iss 

Tberiacse qs. 

M. et fiant bolus No. I. 

Sig. — For doctor's use. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 

Write a prescription for a chronic cough. 

Jan. 2, 1914. 
For Mr. Jones's gray gelding. 

Guaiacoli 5 iv 

Olei lini O ij 

M. Sig. — Give one tablespoonful 3 or 4 times daily. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 333 

Write a prescription for round worms in the dog. Give full directions. 
For Miss Smith's dog. Jan. 2, 1914. 

Santonini. 

Hydrargyri chloridi mitis aa grs. iv 

Sodium bicarbonatis 3 j 

M. et div. pulv. No. viij. 

Sig. — Fast dog 24 hours, then give one powder every 
hour until all are given. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 

Write a prescription for a two- weeks-old calf suffering from diarrhoea. 

For Mr. Jones's calf. Jan. 2, 1914. 

B 

Bismuthi subnitratis. 

Cretse prseparatse aa 5 iij 

M. et ft. capsulae No. X. 

Sig. — Give one capsule every two hours. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 

Write a prescription for a horse whose temperature is 105°, respiration 
30 and pulse 75 but strong, the medicine to be given in liquid 
form. 

For Mr. Brown's bay mare. Jan. 2, 1914. 

Quininae sulphatis S iv 

(Ac. sulphurici, qs.) 

Tr. digitalis B v 

Alcoholis qs. ad , j 

M. et ft. sol. 

Sig. — Give two tablespoonsful every six hours. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 

Write a prescription for half an ounce of a 5 per cent, solution of 
cocaine. 

Cocaine hydrochloratis grs. xij 

Aquae destillatse 5 iv 

Prescribe for a dog suffering from mange. 

For Mrs. Smith's dog. Jan. 2, 1914. 



B 



Balsami Peruviani 5 iiss 

Creolini 3 vj 

Alcoholis qs. ad O j 

M. et ft. sol. 

Sig. — ^Apply a small amount on affected areas once daily 
for four days, then bathe and repeat. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 



334 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Write a prescription for a purgative for a 900-pound cow. 

For Mr. Brown's cow. Jan. 2, 1914. 

Magnesii sulphatis S xxiv 

Sodii chloridi S viij 

Tr. zingiberis S iij 

Aquae iv 

M. Sig. — Give at one dose as a drench. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 

Write a prescription for a horse suffering from spasmodic colic, giving 
the directions in plain English. 

For Mr. Brown's bay mare. Jan. 2, 1914. 

Spts. ammonii aromatici. 

Olei terebinthinae aa S j 

Olei lini 5 xiv 

M. Sig. — Give at one dose as a drench. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 

Write a prescription for a tonic for (a) the horse, (b) the cow, (c) 

the dog. 

(a) IJ 

Liquoris potassii arsenitis S xij 

Tincturae gentianae comp. g iss 

Tincturae aloes 3 ij 

Fluidi extracti nucis vomicae 5 iss 

M. Sig. — Give one tablespoonful t. i. d. before meals. 



I 



i 

i 



(b) B 



(c) ^ 



Quininae sulphatis 3 vj 

Ferri sulphatis 3 ij 

Pulveris gentinae radicis 5 vj 

Pulveris nucis vomicae 3 iss 

M. et ft. pulv. No. xij. 

Sig. — Give one powder on tongue t. i. d. 

Syrupi ferri, quininae et strychninae phosphati § iv 

Sig. — One teaspoonful t. i. d. before feeding. 



Write a prescription for a cough powder for an adult horse. 

For Mr. Smith's brown stallion. Jan. 2, 1914. 



^ 



Camphorse. 

Potassii chloratis aa S j 

Pulveris glycyrrhizae B iv 

Fl. ext. belladonnae 5 j 

Theriacae qs. 

Misce et fiant electuarimn. 

Sig. — One tablespoonful on back teeth t. i. d. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 335 

Write a prescription for 15 powders for a tonic containing a simple 
bitter, a preparation of iron and a nerve tonic, to be given in 
powder form. 

For Mr. Black's gray mare. Jan. 2, 1914. 

Pulveris gentianse radicis S viij 

Ferri sulphatis 3 ij 

StrychniniK sulphatis grs. xij 

M. et ft. pulv. No. XV. 

Sig. — Give one powder in feed t. i. d. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 

Prescribe a treatment for chronic eczema in the dog. 

For Miss Johnson's dog. Jan. 2, 1914. 

Sulphuris sublimati S j 

Olei cadini S iij 

Adipis lanae hydros! B v 

M. et ft. iinguentum. 

Sig. — Thoroughly rub in and leave for 48 hours, then 
wash and repeat. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 

Write a prescription for a blister, in the form of an ointment. Give 
directions for applying the blister and state what precau- 
tions should be taken after it is applied. 

For Mr. Williams's bay mare. Jan. 3, 1914. 

]^ 

Hydrargyri biniodidi. 

Pulveris cantharis aa 3 ij 

Adipis 3 iij 

M. et ft. unguentum. 

Sig. — Clip hair over spavin and apply ointment with con- 
siderable friction. Three days later, apply vase- 
line over blistered area. Tie horse short to pre- 
vent interference by biting parts. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 

Write a prescription for a cathartic for a sheep. 

For Mr. Black's sheep. • Jan. 3, 1914. 

Magnesii sulphatis S vj 

Sodii chloridi g ij 

Misce et ft. pulv. No. I. 

Sig. — ^Dissolve powder in half pint of water and give as 
a drench. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 



336 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Prescribe treatment for a dog whose temperature is 105°, respiration 
50 and pulse 120 but weak, the medicine to be given in liquid 
form. 

For Miss Brown's dog. Jan. 3, 1014. 

Tincturse aconiti 3 iss 

Spts. setheris nitrosi 3 iv 

Aquae qs. ad ij 

Misce et ft. sol. 

Sig. — One teaspoonful every 3 hours. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 

Write a prescription for scratches. 

For Mr. Jennings's chestnut mare Jan. 3, 1914. 

Tincturse benzoini compositae. 

Glycerini aa 5 viij 

Misce et ft. sol. 

Sig. — ^Apply to affected leg t. i. d. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 

Write a prescription for a liniment. 

Liniment. 

Olei terebinthinae. 
Aquae ammonii. 

Camphorse aa 5 1 

Olei lini S v 

Misce. 

Sig. — Shake well before using. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 

Write a prescription for a cow suffering from actinomycosis. 

For Mr. Black's cow. Jan. 3, 1914. 

Potassii iodidi 5 xij 

Ft. pulv. No. xvi. 

Sig. — One powder in drinking water once daily. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 

Prescribe for a horse suffering from acute indigestion. 

Jan. 3, 1914. 
For Mr. White's bay gelding. 

Sodii hyposulphitis B xiv 

Ft. pulv. No. II. 

Sig. — Dissolve one powder in a pint of water and give 
as a drench. Repeat in one hour if necessary. 

John Doe, D.V.M 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 337 

Aloes barbadensis 3 x 

Hydrargyri chloridi mitis gi". xxx 

Pulveris zingiberis 3 isa 

Theriacae qs. 

M. et ft. bolus No. I. 

Sig. — Give one hour after drenching. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 
(Evacuation of stomach by means of stomach tube is beat 

treatment. ) 

Write a prescription for ringworm. 

For Miss Brown's dog. Jan. 3, 1914. 

Balsami Peruviani 3 ij 

Adipis benzoinati S ij 

M. et ft. unguentum. 

Sig. — Apply a small amount to affected parts once daily. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 

Write a prescription for flatulent colic in the horse. 

For Mr. Smith's gray mare. Jan. 3, 1914. 

Olei terebinthinse 5 i j 

Spts. ammonii aromatici 5 j 

Olei lini qs. ad O ij 

M. et ft. sol. 

Sig. — Give at one time as a drench. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 

Write a prescription containing at least three drugs for a case of 
chronic constipation in the dog. 

For John Smith's dog. Jan. 3, 1914. 

Resinse jalapse gr. vj 

Extracti belladonnae. 

Extracti physostigmatis aa gr. iij 

M. et ft. pilulae No. xxiv. 

Sig. — Give one pill at night. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 

Write a prescription for a case of chronic cough. Use at least three 
drugs. 

For Mr. Brown's bay mare. Jan. 3, 1914. 

Fl. ext. belladonnae 5 ij 

Fl. ext. lobeliae 5 viij 

Acidi hydrocyanic! diluti § i j 

Syrupus simplicis qs. ad i j 

M. 

Sig. — Give one ounce every 3 hours. 

John Doe, D.V.M. 
22 



338 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Toxicology 

Mention three poisons, stating the antidote for each. 

1. Corrosive sublimate : Antidote, egg-albumin. 

2. Arsenic : Antidote, freshly prepared hydrated oxide of iron. 

3. Phosphorus : Antidote, sulphate of copper. 

What is the difference between antagonists and antidotes? Give an 
example of each. 

Antagonists are agents which counteract each other in their 
physiological actions; for example, strychnine antagonizes the de- 
pressing effect of chloral hydrate on the heart. In this respect all 
antagonists are physiological antidotes. 

Antidotes are agents which counteract the effects of a poison and 
render it harmless. They are classified as chemical, mechanical, and 
physiological, according to their method of action. Chemical anti- 
dotes change the composition of the drug, as starch given in poison- 
ing by iodine forms the iodide of starch, which is insoluble and inert. 
Mechanical antidotes surround the poison and protect the tissues 
from its action, as egg-albumin protects the tissues from corrosive 
agents. Physiological antidotes antagonize the action of the poison. 

Give the symptoms of arsenic poisoning. Name the best chemical 
antidote for arsenic poisoning. 

Acute arsenical poisoning is shown by retching, vomiting, thirst, 
purging, bloody stools, colicky pains, gastro-enteritis, rapid weak 
heart, haematuria, subnormal temperature, general oedema, delirium, 
collapse, coma, and death. 

Chronic form is characterized by indigestion, thirst, cachexia, 
enlargement of joints, chronic eczema, and necrosis of bones. 

The best chemical antidote for arsenic poisoning is the freshly- 
prepared hydrated sesquioxide of iron. 

Name an antidote for Paris green and tell how it should be adminis- 
tered. 

Same as arsenic (the poisonous action of Paris green is due to the 
arsenic it contains). The antidote should be given every fifteen 
minutes in doses of 30 ounces to the horse, 40 ounces to cattle, and 
1 ounce to dogs, until relief is obtained. 

What precautions are necessary in the treatment of skin diseases of 

smaller animals? 

Care should be taken to avoid poisonous drugs or any drugs in 

large amounts because of the danger of absorption and also the 

danger of the animal licking the medicine off. Coal-tar products 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 339 

often nauseate and cause serious conditions in cats and dogs when 
applied externally. 

What are the symptoms of mercurial poisoning? Give an antidote to 
mercury. 
The symptoms of mercurialism (hydrargyrism) are: salivation, 
ulcerous stomatitis, loosening of teeth, blue line along the gums, 
gastro-enteritis, bloody diarrhoea, cough, nasal discharge, often 
blood-streaked, weakness, dizziness, trembling, delirium. Acute 
form lasts from 10 to 14 days. Chronic form may last several 
weeks or even months, and is accompanied by extreme wasting, 
chronic eczema, falling hair, and lameness, due to affections of the 
joints and muscles. 

Best antidote is egg-albumin, which forms the insoluble albu- 
minate of mercury. Sulphur or sulphur compounds also form in- 
soluble compounds with mercury. 

Give the symptoms of lead poisoning in the ox. Prescribe treatment for 
lead poisoning. 

Lead poisoning, also called plumbism and saturnism, occurs in 
acute and chronic forms. The acute form is rarely seen, and is 
shown by intense gastro-enteritis, salivation, retching, paralysis, 
coma, and collapse. The chronic form is characterized by emaciation, 
dyspnoea, tonic spasms of the flexor muscles and paralysis of the 
extensors of the fore limbs, blue line along the gums, anaemia, 
oedema, colic, constipation, convulsions, and death. 

Treatment in acute form consists of the administration of large 
doses of sulphate of magnesia or soda to form the insoluble sulphate 
of lead and to hasten the emptying of the alimentary tract. Give 
stimulants and apply warmth to the body. 

Chronic form is treated with potassium iodide, after having 
emptied the alimentary tract. Sulphates may be given in small 
repeated doses to assist elimination and prevent reabsorption. 

Describe the effects of a poisonous dose of aconite. 

Muscular weakness, dimness of sight, mydriasis, a slow, small, 
and weak pulse, dyspnoea, retching, belching, vomiting, salivation, 
flatulence, and copious sweating. A peculiar clicking sound is often 
observed, due to the irritation of the throat and constant attempts 
at swallowing. The temperature falls two or three degrees. Death 
is preceded by muscular twitching, loss of strength, and falling, and 
is due to paralysis of the heart and respiration. 



340 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

How should a case of poisoning by chloroform be treated ? 

Give hypodermic injections of strychnine or spirits of glonoin 
to stimulate the heart. Inhalations of ammonia or amyl nitrite have 
the same object in view. Pull the tongue forward to allow free en- 
trance of air. Attempt artificial respiration by rhythmically com- 
pressing the chest with the knees, feet, or hands. Allow plenty of 
fresh air. 

How should a case of poisoning by chloral hydrate be treated? 

Use stomach-tube, or emetics in vomiting animals. Give large 
doses of strychnine and atropine subcutaneously. Enemas of strong, 
hot coffee and alcohol are useful. Arouse patient by shouting and 
whipping. Inhalations of ammonia or amyl nitrite, as in chloroform 
poisoning, to stimulate the heart. 

Give the symptoms of morphine poisoning and state the antidotes. 

In the horse, toxic doses of morphine cause considerable cerebral 
excitement at first, but later depression, loss of reflexes, coma, cold 
sweat, slow heart, dilatation of the pupil (not contracted, ''pin- 
point," as in other animals and man), lessened urinary secretion, 
and death by suspension of respiration. 

Antidotes: Potassium permanganate by the mouth, atropine, 
and strychnine subcutaneously, artificial respiration ; arouse patient 
by slapping smartly. Emetics should be given vomiting animals. 

Give the symptoms and treatment of atropine poisoning. 

Rapid pulse and respiration, elevated temperature, dryness of 
mouth, mydriasis, excitement, delirium, muscular twitchings, fre- 
quent urination. Later the temperature falls, the urine is retained, 
convulsions occur, the respiration becomes weak, slow, and irregu- 
lar, death occurs from cardiac and respiratory failure. A few 
drops of the urine of the poisoned animal placed in the eye of a 
healthy animal causes mydriasis and aids in diagnosis. 

Treatment : Stomach-pump, emetics, cardiac stimulants. Opium 
and pilocarpine oppose its physiological action. Tannic acid should 
be administered as the chemical antidote. Apply external heat in 
collapse, and give strychnine if respiration fails. 

Give a treatment of strychnine poisoning in the dog. 

Apomorphine hydrochlorate, ^/go to ^/g grain hypodermieally, 
is the best and surest emetic. 

Give potassium bromide 2 to 4 drachms, or chloral hydrate 20 
to 40 grains, to control spasms. Tannic acid is a chemical antidote. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 341 

Serum TnERiVPY 
What is serum therapy? 

Serum therapy is a method of producing passive immunity. It 
consists in the administration, for preventative or curative purposes, 
of a blood-serum containing antitoxin (antibodies) or some other 
substance which is antagonistic to the bacterium or toxin which 
causes the disease in question. 

Define immunity. What is meant by natural and acquired immunity? 

Immunity is a state in which an animal's body is resistant or 
insusceptible to a certain disease. This state may be natural or 
acquired. 

Natural immunity is that enjoyed by the animal from birth, and 
not a result of any changes during its lifetime. If the immunity 
is the result of changes during the animal's lifetime, it is spoken 
of as an acquired immunity. 

Acquired immunity may be active, — that is, obtained by an in- 
dividual by having suffered from an attack of a pathogenic micro- 
organism and having overcome it; or it may be passive, — that is, a 
result of the injection of the serum of an animal which has acquired 
an active immunity against the organism in question. 

In what infectious diseases is immunization of value? 

In rabies, tetanus, black-quarter, anthrax, and hog cholera, im- 
munization is unquestionably of great value. Considerable experi- 
mental work has been done on immunization in the following dis- 
eases: hemorrhagic septicaemia, influenza, dog distemper, Texas 
fever, infectious abortion, glanders, tuberculosis, and foot-and-mouth 
disease, but the results have been far from uniform and their value 
is still suh judice. 

Discuss the antitoxin treatment. 

If gradually increasing doses of the toxins of a pathogenic micro- 
organism are injected into an animal, the animal not only acquires 
an immunity to the particular toxin, but its blood-serum will an- 
tagonize or neutralize the latter if they are brought together. If 
some of the seriun of this immune animal is injected into an animal 
which is suffering from the disease caused by this toxin, it will antag- 
onize or render inert some or all of the toxin and thus aid in the 
recovery of the sick animal. The substance contained in the immune 
sera which combines with and neutralizes the toxin is called an 
antitoxin. 

The treatment of an infectious disease with a specific antiserum 
is called serum therapy. Diseases treated in this manner are 



342 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

tetanus and diphtheria. The antitoxin is also used as a prophy- 
lactic agent. 

Define amboceptors, lysins, complement. 

Amboceptors are antibodies in serum which possess an affinity 
for both the complement and the cell to be destroyed (a bacterium 
or a red blood-corpuscle), and which serves to unite the two, so 
that lysis or destruction of the cell may be effected. It is also 
called the immune body. 

Lysins are specific antibodies, formed in the blood-serum during 
bacterial infection, which are destructive to the bacteria of the spe- 
cific serum. They are probably identical with agglutinins. 

Complement is a thermolabile (altered or destroyed by heat) sub- 
stance in normal serum which is destructive to bacteria and other 
cells with which it is brought in contact by means of the amboceptor. 

(For further details, see Diagnosis of Glanders by Complement- 
fixation Test, p. 167.) 

Discuss the serum therapy of hog cholera. 

It has been found that the serum from a hog which has recovered 
from an attack of hog cholera possesses immunizing and curative 
properties for susceptible hogs. If the hog which has recovered is 
inoculated with the virus of the disease, its immunizing and curative 
properties are greatly augmented, although the hog suffers no ill- 
ness. This is called hyperimmunization. The hyperimmunized hog 
is bled, the blood defibrinated, and a small amount of a preservative 
(phenol) is added to insure its keeping qualities. 

The use of serum as a curative agent is only of value in the early 
stages of the disease. The serum is injected subcutaneously on the 
inner side of the thigh in a dose of approximately 40 c.c. per 100 
pounds of body weight. In recently infected or non-infected hogs 
a passive immunity is secured which lasts only a few weeks, but is 
sufficient to protect against the effects of a transient exposure, as at 
fairs, travelling, etc. 

How is hog cholera serum obtained? 

(See answer to preceding question.) 

Where serum is produced on a large scale, instead of utilizing 
hogs which have survived a natural infection, susceptible hogs are 
used. These are first given an immunizing dose of the serum as a 
protective measure and later injected with gradually-increasing 
doses of virus until they become hyperimmune (proven by test on 
hogs) . They are bled from the tails at intervals of ten days so long 
as their serum is potent. They may then be injected with virus and 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 343 

brought to the hyperimmune stage again, and so on until, from 
repeated amputations, their tails become too short for subsequent 
bleedings. 

What is meant by the simultaneous method of immunization against 
hog cholera? 
The simultaneous method consists of the inoculation of a hog with 
a protective dose of immune serum and 2 or 3 c.c. of virulent blood 
at the same time. This method confers an immunity which will last 
six months and possibly one year. But it is not a practicable method 
for inexperienced therapeutists, because of the danger of the virus 
being scattered. 

How is tetanus antitoxin obtained? Discuss its use. 

Antitetanic serum is obtained from a horse which has been re- 
peatedly inoculated with gradually-increasing amounts of tetanus 
toxin, obtained from artificial cultures. Extremely minute doses 
of the toxin are given at first, but at the end of several months a 
pint or more produces no ill-effect. "When, by test on guinea-pigs, 
the serum of the horse is of the desired potency, the animal is bled 
from the jugular at intervals ; the serum is drawn off and aseptically 
preserved. 

The antitoxin is measured in units; a unit representing the 
amount necessary to neutralize a given amount of toxin, as proven 
on guinea-pigs. 

Tetanus antitoxin is a valuable prophylactic or immunizing 
agent. It should be administered in cases of infected wounds when- 
ever there is a suspicion that tetanus bacilli may be present. If 
given before the symptoms of tetanus appear, 750 units seem to be 
sufficient to immunize. This immunity lasts but a few weeks. 
There is a great diversity of opinion regarding its value as a cura- 
tive agent. If it is of any value in this connection, it should be 
given early and in large doses. There is no definite dosage ; as much 
as 5000, and even 30,000, units have been given with equally varying 
results. 

Vaccine Therapy 

What is vaccine therapy ? 

Vaccine therapy is a method of producing an active immunity by 
the injection of bacteria, or the products of bacterial growth, directly 
into the patient. The virulence of the bacteria is modified by heat 
or otherwise. As a result of their injection, antitoxins are produced 
in the body. This is in contradistinction to serum therapy, which 
produces a passive immunity. (See above.) 



344 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

What is (a) a vaccine, (b) a bacterin. 

These two terms are being used synonymously of late, although 
a distinction was formerly, and should now be, made. 

A vaccine is the modified and attenuated virus of a disease, in- 
capable of producing a severe infection, but affording protection 
against the action of the unmodified virus. The term is also applied 
to emulsions of dead bacteria. Vaccines are designed to antagonize 
bacterial infection, either in advance of a disease (prophylactic, as 
in black-leg), or after the advent of the disease (therapeutic, as in 
the use of vaccines in wound infections). 

A bacterin is an emulsion of dead cultures of specific bacteria 
in water or a saline solution, administered hypodermically to pro- 
duce an active immunity against the particular bacteria. 

What is meant by " autogenous vaccine "? 

A vaccine derived from bacteria taken from the patient infected 
and intended to be injected into the same individual. It is far 
superior to the ** stock vaccines," which are suspensions of bacteria 
derived from any convenient source and are intended to be used in 
the treatment of infections due to the same organism in any 
individual. 

Discuss bacterin therapy. 

Same as vaccine therapy, described above. 



SANITARY SCIENCE— MEAT AND 
MILK HYGIENE 

Define sanitary science. 

Sanitary science deals with all measures designed to promote 
health and prevent disease. 

How can sanitary science be utilized by the veterinarian ? 

In preventing and controlling outbreaks of infectious diseases by 
a systematic inspection of buildings and surroundings with regard 
to ventilation, drainage, construction, etc. 

Describe a proper method of drainage for a stable. 

Stalls should not slope more than one-half inch toward their 
centre, and a similar slope from before backward is sufficient. 
A shallow gutter running back of the stalls should be conducted 
outside and into a trap which empties into the sewer. All drains 
within the stable should be on the surface to permit of ready access. 

What is the objection to building a stable (a) on a damp northern 
slope, (b) in a deep, narrow, east and west slope, (c) on a 
springy, hill-foot or on other wet impervious soil? 

(a) There would be insufficient sunlight to evaporate the objec- 
tionable moisture. 

(b) There would be insufficient sunlight and a tendency to 
dampness. 

(c) It would be difficult to secure proper drainage, and the 
dampness would be detrimental to health. 

Mention some of the ways by which impure water may be purified or 
made wholesome. 
Sand filtration, sedimentation, and boiling. 

What precautions should be taken in grain feeding as regards watering 
in connection with the grain? 

Give the water before feeding grain; otherwise, the stomach 
being comparatively small, considerable grain will be washed 
through into the intestines in an undigested condition. 

345 



346 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Define proximate principle. Name three proximate principles and 
mention a common food substance in which each is re- 
spectively contained. 
A proximate principle is a substance which is capable of being 
decomposed into simpler principles or parts, as distinguished from 
ultimate principles which are not capable of further division. For 
example, NaCl is a proximate principle and can be decomposed 
into Na and CI, which, as ultimate principles, cannot be further 
subdivided. 

Starch, protein, and fat are proximate principles which may be 
decomposed into C, 0, H, etc. A common food substance which 
contains these principles is oats. 

Air and Ventilation 

What is the average composition of (a) atmospheric air, (b) air that 
has been breathed? 

(a) Oxygen, 20.96 ; nitrogen, 79.01 ; carbon dioxide, 0.03. 

(b) Oxygen, 16.02 ; nitrogen, 79.01 ; carbon dioxide, 4.38. 

At what stage of chemical impurity does rebreathed air cause oppres- 
sion and at what stage does it become irrespirable ? 
Air becomes oppressive when it contains only 11 per cent, 
of oxygen, and irrespirable when the oxygen falls to 3 per cent. 

State the minimum amount of air space that should be provided in a 
stable (a) for each horse, (b) for each cow. 
This all depends on how often the air of the space is changed. 
A horse requires 15,000 cubic feet per hour, and cattle slightly less. 
The average air space given to a horse is 1500 cubic feet, and to a 
cow 1200 cubic feet. In the case of the horse, the air would need 
to be changed ten times per hour, and for the cow about twelve 
times. 

Does air space greatly in excess of the required amount render the ven- 
tilation of a stable unnecessary? Give reason for your 
answer. 
No. The larger the air space, the smaller number of times the 
air of that space needs to be changed ; but once the impurities are 
present, they remain and will only be removed by supplying fresh 
air. 

Describe the King system of ventilation. 

Fresh air enters through openings in the outside wall, three or 
four feet below the ceiling, passes up between the outside and the 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 347 

inside wall and into the building just under the ceiling. These 
intake flues should be 4 inches in diameter and 6 feet apart on all 
four sides of the building. Impure air passes out through a large 
ventilating shaft, situated in the middle of the building, and ex- 
tending from one foot above the floor upward through the ceiling. 
One such shaft, two feet square, is sufficient for 30 cows. Its top is 
usually provided with an elbow-like hood which keeps out rain and 
swings with the wind. The wind creates a suction which favors 
the circulation of air upward through this out-take flue. Near the 
ceiling there is an opening in the shaft provided with a door, which 
is only opened when the temperature of the interior of the building 
is too high. 

Infectious Diseases 
What hygienic measures should be employed to check the spread of 
infectious abortion in cattle? 
Segregation of infected animals. Thoroughly disinfect stables. 
"Wash the external genitals of all pregnant animals daily with a 
non-irritating antiseptic, and irrigate their vaginas with same. Burn 
all litter, membranes, and expelled foetuses. Cleanse the penis and 
sheath of each male which has covered an infected female by irri- 
gating same with a 1 per cent, soda solution, or I/2 per cent, lysol 
solution. 

Describe the hygienic and sanitary precautions that should be observed 
in a case of glanders occurring in a large livery in a city. 
Apply complement-fixation, agglutination, and ophthalmic tests. 
Destroy all reactors. Burn all litter and thoroughly disinfect the 
stable, harness, utensils, etc. The stable should be quarantined until 
tests have been completed. Any animals failing to react should be 
kept under suspicion until subsequent tests, applied one month later, 
prove them to be free from the disease. 

Outline a plan for thoroughly disinfecting stable premises that have 
become infected by the presence of contagious diseases. 
Cleanse the stable thoroughly by removing manure and piles of 
fodder, sweeping the ceilings, walls, and floors, removal of rotten 
woodwork and loose boards, especially of the floor, removal of dried 
accumulations about mangers, floors, and drains; burn all the 
removed material; scrub the mangers, feed-boxes, stalls, partitions, 
harnesses, utensils, etc., with hot water and strong soap, lye, or wash- 
ing soda. After cleansing, apply a chemical disinfectant with a 
brush or, preferably, with a spray pump, which will carry it into 
every crevice and over every surface. Bichloride of mercury, 



348 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

1-1000, is the best disinfectant. Gutters and drains may be flushed 
with a saturated solution of sulphate of iron. Dirt floors and barn- 
yards containing infected material should be excavated to a depth 
of six inches and filled in with new earth. Large fields may be 
burned over. 

Describe in detail your procedure in the treatment of a herd of cattle, 
a part of which you have discovered to be infected with 
tuberculosis. 

Separate the non-infected from the infected and test them every 
three months for the first year and thereafter every six months. 
All reacting or suspicious cases should be promptly removed. Reac- 
tors which show clinical symptoms should be destroyed. Others may 
be kept under the Bang system. Thoroughly disinfect the infected 
premises. 

How should all outbreaks of contagious diseases be handled? 

By reporting promptly to the local or State authorities handling 
such affairs. By enforcement of proper quarantine and attention to 
disinfection. 

Describe an effective method of disinfecting a ship that has contained 
cattle affected with anthrax. 
Send the boat out to sea not less than forty miles from land and, 
beginning at the lowest occupied deck, have all excreta, fodder, fit- 
tings, etc., brought up and thrown overboard. Then turn live steam 
under pressure against every portion of the ship *s interior, touching 
every crevice, nook, and corner. The bilge should be pumped out 
and disinfected with bichloride of mercury or carbolic acid. 

Mention a bacterium that is very resistant to the action of disinfectants. 
Give a reason for your answer. 
Bacterium of anthrax, because it forms spores which are very 
resistant to the strongest disinfectants. These spores under favor- 
able conditions develop into virulent bacteria. 

Mention five ways in which pathogenic bacteria may be disseminated 
from diseased to healthy animals. 
By common watering and feeding troughs, by attendants, by 
licking one another, by flies, and by an intermediate host (Texas- 
fever tick) . 

Mention some of the contributing causes of contagious and zymotic 
diseases. 

Low-resisting powers due to previous disease, fatigue, or lack of 
nourishment; overcrowding, poor ventilation, wounds. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 349 

State the sanitary police measures necessary to prevent the spread of 

dourine. 

All affected horses should be excluded from breeding again. 

Castration would be advisable as a safeguard. Stallions showing 

no symptoms but having covered mares affected with the disease 

should be similarly dealt with. 

Describe the hygienic measures needful for the prevention of cerebro- 
spinal meningitis. 
Especial attention should be given to the food and water supply. 
In case of an outbreak of the disease in a stable, the food, water, and 
pasture should be changed immediately. Disinfect stalls, mangers, 
etc., which have been used by affected animals. 

Mention the measures of sanitary police that would be needed if lung 
plague (contagious pleuropneumonia) were landed on our 
shores. 

Establish quarantine over the infected area. Kill all infected 
animals and destroy carcasses by burning. Prevent any movements 
of cattle into or out of the quarantined district for at least three 
months after the last case appears. Destroy, by burning or plowing 
under, all contaminated litter, and thoroughly disinfect premises, 
as well as all boats, cars, etc., used in transporting infected animals. 

Describe your method of procedure in case of an outbreak of anthrax 
in a herd of cattle. 
Isolate the sick animals. Kill badly diseased ones, but avoid 
the shedding of blood. Destroy carcasses by burning, or burying in 
quicklime at least five feet under the ground. The grave should be 
in porous soil, far from any pond or river, and it should be fenced 
off from pastures. Disinfect, by burning, all litter, fodder, manure, 
urine, etc., and flame or drench with strong formalin solution all 
stalls, and utensils used about the animals. Keep the remainder 
of the herd immunized by vaccinating annually until the infection 
is known to have disappeared from the premises. The sale of meat, 
milk, hides, or other products from infected animals should be 
prohibited. 

Prophylaxis 

Describe the precautions that should be taken by the national and 
State governments to prevent the introduction of foot-and- 
mouth disease into this country. 
A certificate, declaring the non-exposure of each cloven-hoofed 
animal imported and a thorough disinfection of all litter, fodder, 



350 TETERINARY STATE BOARD 

halters, cars, boats, etc., as well as the clothing and the surface of 
the bodies of all attendants and animals, should be required in every 
case of an importation from an infected country. Such animals 
should be held in quarantine for two weeks. 

Describe the Bang method of eradicating tuberculosis from a herd of 
cattle. 

Slaughter all clinical cases. Apply the tuberculin test to the 
remainder of the herd. Those reacting to the test bufc showing no 
clinical symptoms are removed to a separate stable. (Perhaps it 
would be better to remove the healthy animals to new or non-infected 
quarters and leave the reactors in the old stable, which, in either 
case, should be thoroughly disinfected.) Promptly remove the off- 
spring of reactors from the mother and feed them on milk from 
healthy cows or on sterilized milk of the mother. The non-reacting 
animals and all offspring should be tuberculin tested every six 
months and any reacting animals promptly removed and their 
stalls disinfected. Every avenue of infection of the sound herd 
must be guarded. Thus a healthy herd may be built up from a 
diseased one. 

Define disinfection. Name two natural and five chemical disinfectants. 

Disinfection is the act of destroying microorganisms in or on 
any substance, or inhibiting their growth and vital activity. 

Sunlight and heat are two natural disinfectants. 

Phenol, corrosive sublimate, chloride of lime, formaldehyde, and 
oxalic acid are chemical disinfectants. 

What precautions should be taken in feeding a horse that is kept from 
work two or three days on account of lameness or injury? 
Why? If such precautions are not observed, v/hat is likely 
to occur? 

The amount of food should be greatly lessened and a laxative 
diet would be advisable, because the vital activities are lessened and 
less nourishment is required. Azoturia may follow redt and heavy 
feeding in plethoric horses. 

What factors do you consider important in the prevention of contagious 
and zymotic diseases? 
Isolation, quarantine, disinfection, and protective inoculations. 

Name five prophylactic serums or vaccines and the disease against 
which each is employed. 
Hog-cholera serum protects against hog cholera. 
Tetanus antitoxin protects against tetanus. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 351 

Black-leg vaccine protects against black-leg. 

Anthrax vaccine protects against anthrax. 

Eabies vaccine protects against rabies. 
What precautions are necessary for public safety in an outbreak of 
rabies ? 

Rigid quarantine for 100 days, or longer if necessary. Muzzle 
all dogs over a wide area. All stray and unmuzzled dogs should be 
shot. All dogs and cats that have been bitten by a rabid animal 
should be destroyed or shut up in iron cages for six months under 
veterinary supervision. 

Milk and Meat Hygiene 
Mention the diseases of animals that render their flesh unfit for human 
food. 

Unconditional. Conditional. 

Extreme emaciation. Pregnancy. 

Exhaustion. Local inflammatory changes. 

Enteritis. Tumors. 

Peritonitis. Hepatitis. 

Acute nephritis. Chronic nephritis. 

Pneumonia. Mammitis. 

Pleurisy. Myocarditis. 

I/euksemia. Endocarditis. 

Pseudotuberculosis. Pericarditis. 

Anthrax. Anaemia. 

Rabies. Bachitis. 

Glanders. Osteomalacia. 

Variola. Parasitic diseases. 

Tetanus. Tuberculosis. 

Malignant oedema. Actinomycosis. 

Septicaemia. Botryomycosis. 

Pyaemia. Swine erysipelas. 

Black-leg. Hog cholera. 

Hemorrhagic septicaemia. Foot-and-mouth disease. 
Uraemia. 

Parturient paresis. 
Febrile diseases. 

Name ten local disease conditions that do not call for rejection of the 
meat for human food. 
Localized tuberculosis, actinomycosis and botryomycosis ; peri- 
carditis, benign tumors, chronic nephritis, dermatitis, mange, hemor- 
rhage, thrombosis. 

How is it determined at slaughter whether a tubercular cow is fit or 
unfit for human consumption? 
B. A. I. Order No. 150, Section 13, Paragraph 2, Eule A, reads 
as follows: *'The entire carcass shall be condemned — 



352 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

*' (a) "When there is a tuberculous or other cachexia, as shown by 
anaBmia and emaciation. 

*' (b) When the lesions of tuberculosis are generalized. . . . 

"(c) When the lesions of tuberculosis are found in the muscles 
or intermuscular tissue or bones or joints, or in the body lymphatic 
glands as a result of draining the muscles, bones, or joints. 

* ' (d) When the lesions are extensive in one or both body cavities. 

*'(e) When the lesions are multiple, acute, and actively pro- 
gressive. (Evidence of active progress consists in signs of acute 
inflammation about the lesions, liquefaction necrosis, or the pres- 
ence of young tubercles.) 

**Rule B : An organ or a part of a carcass shall be condemned — • 

** (a) When it contains lesions of tuberculosis. 

** (b) When the lesion is immediately adjacent to the flesh, as is 
the case of tuberculosis of the parietal pleura or peritoneum, not only 
the membrane or part affected but also the adjacent thoracic or 
abdominal wall is to be condemned. 

*'(c) When it has been contaminated by tuberculous material, 
through contact with the floor, a soiled knife, or otherwise. 

**(d) All heads showing lesions of tuberculosis shall be con- 
demned. 

*'(e) An organ shall be condemned when the corresponding 
lymphatic gland is tuberculous. 

* ' Rule C : The carcass, if the tuberculous lesions are limited to 
a single or several parts or organs of the body (except as noted in 
Rule A), without evidence of recent invasion of tubercle bacilli into 
the systemic circulation, shall be passed after the parts containing 
the localized lesions are removed and condemned in accordance with 
Rule B. 

"Rule D: Carcasses which reveal lesions more numerous than 
those described for carcasses to be passed (Rule C) , but not so severe 
as the lesions described for carcasses to be condemned (Rule A) , may 
be rendered into lard or tallow if the distribution of the lesions is 
such that all parts containing tuberculous lesions can be removed. 
Such carcasses shall be cooked by steam at a temperature not lower 
than 220° Fahrenheit for not less than four hours." 

Wfiat points determine whether a case of tuberculosis is generalized 
or local? 

The term "localized tuberculosis'* is applied to cases where 
there is an infection of a single part of the body with the corre- 
sponding lymph-glands, or the infection of several parts of the 
body without the concurrence of the large circulatory system. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 353 

** Generalized tuberculosis** is a term applied in cases where a 
part of the body is affected to which the tubercle bacilli can be 
taken by the arterial blood only {e.g., spleen, kidneys, suprarenal 
glands, testicles, ovaries, udder, bones, muscle, body lymph-glands, 
central nervous system, eyes, etc.). The presence of numerous 
foci in the lungs positively indicates infection of the blood and 
therefore is quite indicative of generalized tuberculosis. 

What is " bob veal " ? How is it detected and is it deleterious to human 
health? 

*'Bob veal** is immature veal (veal from calves under three 
weeks of age) . The meat is watery, tender, easily torn, and grayish- 
red in color ; shows only slight muscular development, especially in 
the region of the upper shank. The tissue, which later develops as 
the fat capsule of the kidneys, is cedematous, dirty yellow, or grayish- 
red, and tough. The lumen of the navel vein is wide open and filled 
with liquid blood. A chemical test will show an abnormal amount 
of glycogen present in the muscles. 

It is generally considered that calves under three weeks of age 
are unfit for human food, and our Federal regulations provide for 
their condemnation. Yet, in Germany, calves only three to four 
days old are frequently slaughtered for food, are considered a 
delicacy, and apparently are not detrimental to the health of the 
consumers. 

Name ten inflammatory and five non-inflammatory diseases. 

Inflammatory : Pneumonia, pleurisy, rhinitis, enteritis, gastritis, 
peritonitis, hepatitis, nephritis, arthritis, and pericarditis. 

Non-inflammatory: Pernicious anemia, leukaemia, chronic hy- 
drocephalus, nasal polypi, tetanus. 

Give the life-cycle of cystercus cellulosae. What disease does it cause? 

What disposition should be made of a carcass affected with 

this parasite? 
The mature form of this parasite is the Taenia solium, a tape- 
worm of man. The ova are passed in the feces and become dis- 
seminated through the water or food and are taken in by the inter- 
mediate host, the hog In the hog's stomach the ovum hatches into 
a six-hooked embryo, which finds its way through the stomach and 
intestinal walls and enters the muscular tissues. There it develops 
into the larval stage, becomes encysted, and either perishes in time 
or is eaten by man. If the cyst containing the living larva is eaten by 
man, the larva becomes liberated and attaches itself, by means of its 
booklets, to the intestinal wall and develops into the mature form. 
23 



354 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Pork which contains these cysts is called ' ' measly pork, ' ' and if 
badly affected should be condemned. Carcasses showing slight 
lesions may be passed for lard. 

Where and how would you look for " measly pork '* ? 

With the naked eye the cysts may be seen in the intermuscular 
tissue of the heart, tongue, larynx, abdomen, diaphragm, flanks, 
jaws, neck, sternum, intercostal region, and adductors of the hind 
legs. In case of doubt, a microscopic examination will help in ascer- 
taining the presence or absence of the larva with its hooked scolex. 

Explain the necessity of municipal and State meat inspection. 

To prevent the spread of diseases communicable from animals to 
man and to safeguard the public from unclean and unhealthy meat. 
A considerable amount of our local meat supply is slaughtered 
without inspection. One or more properly-inspected municipal abat- 
toirs should be conducted in or near every city, where all slaughter- 
ing of animals should be performed. State meat inspectors should 
look after the smaller localities. 

Mention the principal diseases of domestic animals that are com- 
municable to man. 

Anthrax. Actinomycosis. 

Rabies. Botryomycosis. 

Glanders. Tuberculosis. 

Foot-and-mouth disease. Pseudotuberculosis. 

Variola. Septicaemia. 

Tetanus. Pyaemia. 
Malignant oedema. 

Name four physiological conditions that would render beef unfit for 
food. 
1. Immaturity. 2. Advanced pregnancy. 3. Strong sexual 
odor. 4. Within ten days after parturition. 

Is a carcass affected with mange fit for human food? 

Carcasses which show advanced lesions associated with emacia- 
tion should be condemned. Mild cases are passed for food. 

What is trichinosis? How detected? State the disposition that should 
be made of a carcass affected with trichinosis. 
A disease of hogs (and man) caused by the presence of the larval 
form of the parasite. Trichina spiralis, in the muscles. (The mature 
worm infests the intestinal tract and causes intestinal trichinosis.) 

A careful microscopical examination is necessary in order to 
detect trichina in pork. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 355 

Badly-infested carcasses should be destroyed. INIild cases should 
be rendered into lard, smoked, pickled, or salted to destroy the 
parasite. 

What is cold slaughtered beef and how is it detected ? 

Cold slaughtered beef is that from a carcass of a dead unslaugh- 
tered animal. Fraudulent attempts are made to give the carcass 
the appearance of a normally slaughtered animal by performing 
the sticking or cutting on post-mortem. This can be detected by the 
absence of bloody infiltration of the edges of the wound, improper 
bleeding, and perhaps evidence of post-mortem decomposition. 

What is your opinion about ante-mortem examination of animals used 
for food ? 

It is very desirable, but should not supplant the post-mortem 
inspection. By it many diseases of animals may be detected and 
the contamination of slaughter-houses avoided, not to mention the 
safeguarding of the public health. Certain diseases, such as scabies, 
rabies, tetanus, etc., which show slight or no lesions on post 
mortem can be readily diagnosed on ante-mortem examination. 

What is the average composition of cow's milk ? 

Water 87.00 Proteids 3.30 

Solids 13.00 Fat 4.00 

Lactose 4.95 

Salts 75 

State the hygienic precautions that should be observed in managing a 
dairy from which milk is sold daily. 

* * Cleanliness ' ' is the keynote. 

Stable: Well drained, ventilated, and lighted. 

Cows : Healthy, well fed and cared for, and clean. 

Milking : The milkers should be healthy and tidy. 

Care of milk : Promptly remove milk from the stable and cool it 
to 45° F., and keep it at this temperature. 

Utensils: Should be all metal and cleansed daily by washing 
and sterilizing with steam or boiling water. 

Water supply : Should be of unquestioned purity. 

What is meant by certified milk? Mention the conditions in the pro- 
duction and care necessary to warrant the certification of 
the milk from a particular dairy. 
Certified milk is that which is produced so as to conform to the 
requirements of a legal contract between a medical milk commission 



356 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

and a dairyman. Although subject to slight variations (principally 
with regard to the maximum bacterial and minimum butter-fat 
content), the conditions are as follows : The milk must be clean and 
wholesome and obtained from healthy cows which are kept in sani- 
tary quarters, fed wholesome feed, and given pure water. It must be 
drawn from clean cows by clean, healthy attendants into clean recep- 
tacles and in a clean atmosphere. It must be handled in a clean 
manner, cooled quickly, put into sterile receptacles, placed in cold 
storage, and iced in transportation when necessary. The bacterial 
content must not exceed 10,000 per c.c, and the fat-content must 
equal or exceed 4 per cent. 

Name some of the diseases that may be transmitted through the 
medium of milk. 
Typhoid fever, diphtheria, scarlet fever, tuberculosis, foot-and- 
mouth disease, actinomycosis, anthrax, cholera infantum, etc. 

Describe the dangers of infection to man through the consumption of 
cow's milk, covering (a) infection from bovine, (b) infec- 
tion from germs added to the liquid during or after milking. 
How may these dangers be guarded against? 

(a) Tuberculosis, actinomycosis, foot-and-mouth disease, and 
anthrax may be transmitted from the cow to man through the milk. 
Strict veterinary supervision of the herd should eliminate these 
dangers. 

(b) Diphtheria, tuberculosis, scarlet fever, and typhoid fever 
may enter the milk during or after milking. To guard against this 
danger, the milker and milker's family should be free from infec- 
tious diseases. All bottles or other receptacles returned from houses 
holding cases of contagious diseases should be carefully sterilized 
or, better, destroyed. Dogs and cats carry disease germs, and should 
be 'excluded from the stable and dairy-house. The water supply 
should be pure. 

State in what way milk may become a means of transmitting the germs 
of typhoid fever. 
The milk may become infected with the typhoid bacillus through 
flies, dust, contact with human patients suffering from this disease, 
cows wading in filth containing bowel and urinary discharges of 
human beings and contaminating the udder with germs of typhoid 
fever and thus conveying them to the milk ; the water supply to the 
milk-house ; bottles returned from houses holding typhoid patients. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 357 

How is milk tested for the presence of (a) boric acid, (b) salicylic 
acid, and (c) sodium bicarbonate? 

(a) Add to a few drops of milk, contained in a white dish, a drop 
or two of hj^drochloric acid, and then several drops of a saturated 
alcoholic solution of turmeric. Heat the dish gently for a few 
minutes, and if boric acid or borax is present, a pink or dark-red 
color will appear. Cool, and add a drop of ammonia, when a dark- 
blue or green color should be seen. 

(b) Add two or three drops of sulphuric acid to 20 c.c. of milk 
and then shake gently with 20 c.c. of a mixture of equal parts of 
ether and petrolic ether. Then, after standing for several hours, 
the upper ethereal solution is poured off and the remaining liquid 
is evaporated in a porcelain evaporating dish. Add to the residue 
a few drops of water, and if salicylic acid is present a violet or 
purple color will be produced on adding a drop of a ferric chloride 
solution. 

(c) Add to the suspected milk an equal volume of alcohol and 
two drops of a 1 per cent, solution of rosalic acid. If sodium bicar- 
bonate is present, a red-rose color will appear. 

Classify milk from the stand-point of its number of harmless bacteria. 

Class 1. Certified milk : not over 10,000 bacteria per cubic centi- 
metre. 

Class 2. Inspected milk: not over 100,000 bacteria per cubic 
centimetre. 

Class 3. Pasteurized milk: none, or a variable low number of 
bacteria. 

What is pasteurized milk? 

Milk which has been heated to a temperature below the boiling- 
point but sufficiently high to destroy all pathogenic microorganisms 
(140° F., or 46° C. for 30 minutes ; 150° F., or 65° C. for 20 minutes ; 
160° F., or 70° C. for 10 minutes). This should be done as soon as 
practicable after milking in inclosed vessels, preferably the final 
containers, and after such heating immediately cooled to a tempera- 
ture not exceeding 50° F., or 10° C. 

Give a test to prove that milk has been pasteurized. 

Pasteurization cannot be proven unless the milk has been heated 
to 170° F., or over, because this temperature is necessary to destroy 
the ferments upon which the test depends. 

Storch's test: Add to 5 c.c. of milk two drops of a freshly- 
prepared 2 per cent, solution of paraphenylenediamine hydrochlor- 



358 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

ide, and then one drop of a 2 per cent, solution of hydrogen dioxide. 
Unheated milk gives a blue color when thus treated, but milk heated 
to 170° F. gives no color. 

Arnold's guaiac test: Add, drop by drop, a little tincture of 
guaiac to a small amount of milk in a test-tube. If the milk has not 
been heated to 80° C. (170° F.), a blue zone is formed between the 
two fluids ; heated milk gives no reaction, but remains white. 

Give a test for formaldehyde in milk. 

Place about 20 c.c. of milk in a small glass vessel, dilute with 
an equal volume of water, and add, by pouring slowly down the 
inside of the vessel, a small amount of 90 per cent, commercial sul- 
phuric acid. If formaldehyde is present, a purple or bluish zone will 
appear at the junction of the acid and milk. If no formaldehyde is 
present, a faint, slightly greenish ring forms. This test will detect 
formaldehyde even if present in as small proportion as 1 in 200,000. 

Name the common preservatives used in milk. 

Boric acid, salicylic acid, formalin, benzoic acid, potassium 
bichromate. 

Give the cause for : (a) ropy milk, (b) bitter milk, (c) blue milk, (d) 
red milk, (e) suppression of the milk, (f) pus in the milk. 

(a) Inflammation of the udder may cause ropy milk, but in the 
majority of cases it is due to B. lactus viscosus. 

(b) Eating of certain foods by cows (lupines, ragweed, cab- 
bages, Swedish turnips) ; it occurs in old milk due to growth of 
germs. 

(c) Bacillus cyanogenus. 

(d) A mixture of blood: B. prodigiosus. Rarely due to eating 
of pigmented plants. 

(e) Mastitis, severe febrile diseases, certain drugs such as bella- 
donna, idodine, camphor, alum, etc, 

(f) Mastitis. (A small number of leucocjrtes is often found in 
milk from apparently healthy cows.) Prolonged retention of milk 
in the udder gives rise to an increased leucocyte content. 

Describe briefly: (a) sanitary farm, (b) sanitary barn, (c) sanitary 
milk-house. 

(a) A sanitary farm is one that is located sufficiently high to 
have good drainage, and that is free from germs of infectious 
diseases. 

(b) A sanitary barn is one provided with good drainage, venti- 
lation, and light, and pure water supply; it has the necessary 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 359 

amount of air space per animal, and is clean and free from germs 
of infectious diseases. 

(e) A sanitary milk-house is so constructed that it can be 
readily disinfected throughout with boiling water or steam. All 
apparatus used in it should be of metal as far as practicable so as to 
permit of thorough sterilization. Good drainage, ventilation, and 
a supply of pure water are essential. It should be well fitted with 
all apparatus necessary for the proper handling, cooling, and storing 
of milk. 

How is a quantitative bacterial analysis of milk made? 

A cubic centimetre of milk is diluted with sterile water and 
mixed with melted nutrient agar. This mixture is poured in a 
Petri dish, allowed to cool, and then placed in an incubator for 24 
hours. Each bacterium grows and produces one colony. By count- 
ing the colonies and multiplying the result by the dilution, the num- 
ber of bacteria per cubic centimetre is determined. 

What is the significance of the presence of streptococci in milk? 

This question is subject to great dispute. Most auttiorities are 
agreed that any number of streptococci in excess of the ordinary 
number found in milk calls for an investigation of the dairy supply- 
ing the milk, looking particularly for mammitis, and contamination 
with dirt, especially manure. 

Name the microorganism that causes milk to become sour. 
B. lactis acidi. 

What is the difference between pasteurized, sterilized and certified 
milk? 

Pasteurized milk has been heated to a temperature below the 
boiling-point but sufficiently high to destroy nearly all living micro- 
organisms, or at least to check their growth. (Ninety-five to ninety- 
eight per cent, of all bacteria are destroyed by pasteurization.) 

Sterilized milk is free from all bacteria and spores. Sterilization 
is usually accomplished by heating the milk to the boiling-point. By 
this process the milk is altered in composition and taste, and there- 
fore it is objectionable as a commercial product. 

Certified milk is produced under such cleanly methods as to 
contain a very low number of non-pathogenic bacteria: not over 
10,000 per cubic centimetre. 



ZOOTECHNICS 

What is zootechnics? What subjects are included in the study of 
zootechnics ? 

Zootechnics refers to the breeding, keeping and general manage- 
ment of domesticated animals. It includes a study of breeds, breed- 
ing, feeds, feeding, conformation, type, soundness, etc. 

Give a definition for the following terms : protein, fat, carbohydrates, 
balanced ration, crude fibre. 

Protein refers to the nitrogen compounds in vegetable and ani- 
mal foods. About 16 per cent, of protein substances consist of 
nitrogen. 

Fat is an important constituent of foods. Its presence is deter- 
mined by submitting the feeding-stuff to the action of ether, which 
dissolves fat. It is often called ether-extract and is found in seeds 
more than in coarse foods. Cotton-seed and flax-seed are especially 
oleaginous. 

Carbohydrates are compounds that are important constituents 
of food. They are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen ; the 
hydrogen and oxygen being in the proportion to form water. They 
are non-nitrogenous compounds and are present in large proportions 
in all the common fodders, in the form of starch, sugar, cellulose, 
etc. 

A "balanced ration is one which contains the different nutrients 
in the proper proportions to meet the physiological requirements of 
the animal, with the least waste of nutrients. 

Crude fibre is the tough or woody part of plants. It consists 
mainly of cellulose and is especially abundant in hay and straw. 

What would constitute a normal day*s ration for a 1200-pound horse? 
The following rations should meet the needs of a 1200-pound 
horse, doing moderate work : 

12 3 

10 pounds hay. 10 pounds hay. 10 pounds hay. 

6 pounds corn. 10 pounds oats. 6 pounds oats. 

7 pounds wheat bran. 5 pounds wh. bran. 6 pounds corn. 

360 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 361 

From the following list of hay, grains and concentrates, subdivide those 
best suited for dairy cattle, beef cattle, horses, sheep and 
swine: Hay — ^timothy, common red clover and alfalfa; 
grains — peas, oats, barley and rye ; concentrates — bran, cot- 
ton-seed meal, oil cake and gluten meal. . 
Dairy cattle : Clover hay, alfalfa, barley, bran, cotton-seed meal, 
oil cake, and gluten. 

Beef cattle : Clover hay, rye, bran, cotton-seed meal, and gluten. 
Horses : Timothy hay, alfalfa, oats, bran, and barley. 
Sheep : Clover hay, alfalfa, bran, cotton-seed meal, gluten, and 
oil cake. 

Swine : Clover hay, peas, barley, and bran. 

Define the following terms : hereditary, prepotency, in-breeding, cross- 
breeding, thoroughbred and grade. 

Hereditary refers to diseases or qualities which are derived from 
ancestry or obtained by inheritance. 

Prepotency is a quality possessed by certain individuals, by 
reason of which they have greater power than the other parent in 
transmitting inheritable characters to the offspring. 

In-hreeding is a form of line-breeding which involves the breeding 
together of sire and offspring or dam and offspring or of brother and 
sister. ^^ 

Cross-'hreeding refers to the combining of ancestral lines of two 
distinct races, breeds, or varieties. 

The term thoroughhred refers to a specific breed of horses (the 
English race-horse) which are noted for speed and endurance. 

The term grade is applied to an offspring resulting from the 
mating of a common or unimproved parent with one more highly 
improved, a "pure-bred.*' 

What is atavism? Cjive an example. 

Atavism is the inheritance of characteristics from remote, but not 
from the immediate, ancestors. In breeding pure-bred animals we 
occasionally obtain an offspring which is off-color or off-tj^e and 
resembles a very remote ancestor. The peculiar color or type may 
not have been shown in several generations. 

Name the various breeds of dairy cattle and wool sheep. 

Dairy cattle: Holstein-Friesians, Jerseys, Guernseys, and 
Ayrshires. 

Wool sheep: Merinos, Southdowns, Shropshires, Oxfords, Dor- 
sets, Leicesters, Cotswolds, and Lincolns. 



362 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

What points should be especially considered in the selection of animals 
for breeding purposes? 
We should consider the individual and its ancestry, noting 
particularly that the high standard of the ancestors has been main- 
tained in each individual in the line of parentage. "Like begets 
like"; therefore, the desirable, as well as the undesirable, points of 
the selected animal are likely to be transmitted to the offspring. 

What influence on the offspring does heredity play and what environ- 
ment? 

Heredity should not be considered from the stand-point of the 
individuals mated only, but of the race as a whole. Consider the 
ancestors and the desirable characteristics which they uniformly 
possessed. From individuals whose ancestry has shown a uniform- 
ity of certain characteristics it is reasonable to expect that these 
points will be transmitted to offspring. Among the characteristics 
inherited are : conformation, type, color, temperament, milk-pro- 
duction, wool-production, speed, endurance, style, action, etc. 

Environment, likewise, deserves general consideration. The 
effect of environment on the immediate offspring is of little impor- 
tance. Insufficient food, overwork, and improper care may result 
in the production of an individual offspring of inferior size and 
development. But the succeeding generation may lack in neither of 
these respects. However, if a great number of generations are 
kept in the same improper environment, there will be a tendency 
toward retrogression. 

What is the value of a pedigree and upon what does it depend? 

A pedigree is a record of ancestry, and its value depends upon the 
reputation of the ancestors. If the ancestors for five or six genera- 
tions back have been individuals of a uniformly good character, the 
pedigree is valuable, and the individual, which it represents, is 
desirable as a breeding animal. On the contrary, if there has been 
a lack of uniformity in the previous generations, the pedigree is of 
little account, and the individual is more or less undesirable as a 
factor in breeding. 

An ideal pedigree would be one which contains definite infor- 
mation regarding the merits and demerits of the individuals 
recorded. 

Name the conditions of the tarsus that cause unsoundness. 

Arthritis chronica deformans, curb, bog-spavin, and thorough- 
pin. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 363 

What unsoundnesses in horses may be regarded as sufficient cause 
for disquaHfication of animals by judges in the show ring? 

Some judges disqualify horses which show lameness from any 
cause whatsoever. But it would seem more logical to disqualify 
only those in which the lameness is due to structural changes in the 
limbs, such as ring-bone, navicular bursitis, spavin, curb, splints, 
quittor, laminitis, tendonitis, shoulder, hip and stifle lameness, etc., 
and to ignore temporary lameness due to nail-wounds, corns, thrush, 
etc. 

Other recognized unsoundnesses are : roaring, heaves, periodic 
ophthalmia, blindness, infectious diseases (glanders, influenza, 
dourine, etc.), osteoporosis, congenital malformations (cryptorchid- 
ism, monorchidism, hernise, etc. ) , chronic hydrocephalus and vicious 
habits. 

What diseases are hereditary in horses? Mention faulty conforma- 
tions that predispose to unsoundness in horses. 

The consensus of opinion would indicate that there are few, if 
any, hereditary diseases. But there is no doubt about the transmis- 
sion of defects in conformation. Among the latter should be 
mentioned : 

Curby hocks. Base narrow. 

Narrow hocks. Toe wide. 

Ejiee- sprung. Toe narrow. 

Calf-knees. Narrow, long-coupled back. 

Short, upright pasterns. Small, deep- set eyes. 

Base wide. Narrow forehead. 

These defects predispose to unsoundness. 

What are the characteristics of a good milch cow? 

Head : Small and clean cut ; muzzle large ; forehead straight or 
concave ; small horns ; eyes bright and prominent. 

Neck: Long and thin. 

Body: Soft, fijie, thick hair; clean, pliable skin; broad loins 
but not thickly fleshed as in the beef type; frame wedge-shaped, 
tapering from rump to shoulder ; flank high ; abdomen well barrelled 
and roomy. 

Udder : Broad, full, extending high up behind and far forward ; 
not loose, pendulent, and fleshy ; teats large, evenly placed, and wide 
apart ; large, prominent milk- veins. 

Extremities : Pore limbs short and wide apart ; long and power- 
ful hind quarters with thin thighs, widely separated ; tail long, slim, 
and loosely jointed. 

Temperament : Docile ; heavy feeder. 



364 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 

Describe a properly built stall for a horse. Give its dimensions. 

A properly-built stall for a horse should be ten feet long from 
the manger and six feet wide. The partitions must be strong and 
high enough, especially in front, to prevent quarrelling. The pillars 
are rounded and provided with rings, about three feet from the 
floor, to which a chain can be attached. 

The floor is made of concrete or other impervious material and 
covered with wood. The slope, posteriorly, should be as little as 
possible to secure drainage. One inch lower behind than in front is 
sufficient. 

Mangers are best made of metal and so constructed as to permit 
of thorough cleansing. The hay-rack should be low to avoid the 
danger of dust, chaff, etc., falling into the nostrils and eyes. 

Windows should be high overhead to prevent drafts and the glare 
of light in the eyes. 

At what age does the cow, mare, bitch, ewe and cat bear young? 

The age at which the various animals arrive at puberty varies in 
different species and in individuals of species. Records show that 
cows have given birth to young as early as 14 months, mares 22 
months, bitch 8 months, ewe 13 months, and cat 10 months. 

It is undesirable to have a female bring forth young before she 
has matured because of the dangers to her health and development. 
Therefore breeders, as a rule, do not mate females until they have 
reached ages as follows : Cow, 1 to 1% years ; mare, 4 to 5 years ; 
bitch, 1 year ; ewe, 1 year ; cat, 1 year. 

What are some of the principal causes of sterility in domestic animals? 
How may these conditions be overcome? 

(See subject of obstetrics, p. 293.) 

Name the several external and internal parasites of sheep. 

External: Melophagus ovinus (sheep-tick), hematopinus stenop- 
sis (sheep-louse), oestrus ovis (sheep gad-fly), sarcoptes seabei (face- 
scab parasite), symbiotes communis (foot-scab parasite), psoroptes 
communis (common scab parasite). 

Internal: (Estrus ovis (grub in head), coenurus cerebralis (gid), 
strongylus filaria and rufescens (lung worms), strongylus convo- 
lutus (stomach worm), cesophagostoma columbiana (nodular disease 
in intestines), distoma hepaticum (fluke), taenia expansa, alba and 
fimbriata (tapeworms). 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 365 

Give the process of dentition in the equine from birth to the age of 
five (5) years. 

At birth or within two weeks after: The colt shows two tem- 
porary nippers, above and below, and the first three temporary 
grinders. 

Four to six weeks : The temporary intermediates appear. 

Six to nine months : The temporary corners appear. 

Ten to twelve months: The fourth molar erupts. 

Two years : The fifth molar erupts. 

Two and one-half to three years : The permanent nippers replace 
the temporary ones and the first two premolars are replaced. 

Three and one-half to four years : The intermediates and third 
premolars are replaced by permanent teeth. 

Four and one-half to five years : The permanent comers, canines, 
and last molars erupt. 

What are the characteristics of a seven-year-old mouth? 

The tables of the nippers and intermediates are levelled (cups 
gone) ; the ring of central enamel is wider anteroposteriorly and 
shorter from side to side; the nippers are oval, the intermediates 
becoming so. A notch is formed on the posterior surface of the 
superior corners. 

State the advantages and disadvantges of a pair of mules over a pair 
of horses. 

Advantages. Disadvantages. 

1. Less susceptible to digestive dis- Practically none. 

orders, laminitis, azoturia, glan- Many people are prejudiced against 

ders, influenza, foot lameness, tlie mule for no valid reason. 

heat prostration, etc. The mule is not adapted to heavy draft 

2. Require less elaborate stables. work because of size. 

3. Longer period of serviceability. 

4. Stand hard usage better. 



INDEX 



Abdominal cavity, regions of, 99 

organs, pathology, 152 
Abducens nerve, 75 

functions of, 134 
Abomasmn, anatomy, 81 

conditions of food leaving, 118 
Abortion, 264, 276 
from ergot, 198 
infectious in cows, 182 

course and etiology of, 277 
methods of control, 277 
of diagnosing, 182 
symptoms, 277 
non-contagious, causes of, 276 
symptoms of, 276 
Abscess, cold, 209, 240 

of shoulder, 240 
treatment, 209, 240 
defined, 144, 209 
postpharyngeal, causes, 220 

symptoms and treatment, 220 
Absorption, 103, 122 

of gas by fluids, 114 
Acariasis, poultry, cause of, 203 
treatment, 203 
prevention and treatment, 205 
Accommodation, 103 

process of, 137 
A. C. E. mixture, 305 
Acetanihde, action, 304 

effect on temperature, 304 
source and uses, 304 
Acetates, 35 
Acid, 3 

acetic, 35, 38 

action on secretions, 331 

arsenious, 33 

boric, 31 

action, properties and uses of, 321 
carbolic, source, 37 
dibasic, 4 
galUc, 34 
hippiuic, 127 
hydrochloric, 318 

preparation of, 26 
source of, in gastric juice, 118 
lactic, 38, 42 
mineral, 40 
monobasic, 4 

nitric, preparation of, and uses, 19 
phosphoric, 11, 318 
sulphuric, 23 

graphic formula of, 11, 24 
preparation of, 23, 24 
tannic, 34 

actions and source, 321 
tartaric, 38 



Acid, tribasic, 4 

uric, 127 
Acid-fast organisms, 162 
Acne, pathology, 156 

< symptoms and treatment, 202 
Aconite, dose of tincture, 299 

maximum doses, 299 

physiological actions, 298 

therapeutic uses, 298 
Aconitine, 315 
ActiQobacniosis, ISO 

animals affected by, 180 

diagnosis and treatment, 180 
Actinomycosis, 180 

fungus of, 162 

prescription for, 336 

symptoms and treatment, 180, 227 
Adrenalin, dose for dog and horse, 318 

preparation, source and uses, 318 
Adrenals, anatomy, 96, 98 

vascular glands, 112 
Aerobic, facultative and obligative, 161 

term defined, 161 
Age, determination of, 225, 365 

of breeding^ 364 
Agglutinins, 163 
Air, 20, 346 

changes in inspired, 113, 346 

composition of breathed, 346 
X)f normal, 115, 346 

constituents of, 20 

injurious substances added to, IQ 
breathing, 20 

mixture not a compound, 20 

residual, 114 

space requirements, 346 

tidal, 103, 114 
Anatomy, 44 

Albuminuria, conditions found in, 186 
Alcohols, absolute, 35 

ethyl, 35 

methyl, 35 

preparation and uses of, 35 
Aldehyde, 35 
Alimentation, 104 
Alkahes, 3 

actions of, 300 

on secretions, 331 

caustic, antidote for, 39 

uses, 300 
Alkaloid, 38, 311 

antidote for, 38 
Alkaloids, six common, 311 
Allantois, 274 
Allotropism, 5 
Aloes, action of, 322 

Barbadoes, 317 

367 



368 



INDEX 



Aloes, Cape, 317 

dose for cow, dog, and horse, 322 

Soco trine, 317 
Alterative, 321 
Aluminum, important salts of, 31 

sulphate, 31 
Alums, 31 
Alveolus, 45 
Amalgam, 4 
Amaurosis, causes, 218 

defined, 218 

treatment, 218 
Amboceptors, 167, 168, 342 

bacterial, 168 

haemolytic, 167, 168 
Ammonia, 19 

aqua, 301 

aromatic spirits of, dose, 320 

sign of danger in drinking water, 19 

source and uses of, 19 
Ammonium acetate, 35 

carbonate, 301 
dose, 320 

chloride, 19, 301 
dose, 320 

iodide, 303 
dose, 314 

nitrate, 20 
Amnion, 274 
Amorphism, 2 
Amphiarthrosis, 52 
Amputation of hind hmb, 98 

of penis, 235 

of tail, indications for, 239 

of udder, indications, 326 
Amylopsin, 116, 121 
AnaboUsm, 40, 126 
Anaemia, 182, 141 

causes of, 182 

cerebral, 200 

post-mortem appearance of, 155 

infectious, treatment, 182 
Anaerobic, term defined, 161 

facultative and obligative, 161 
Anaesthesia, chloroform, 258, 315 
dangers of, 258 

of a foot for operation, 258 
Anaesthetic, defined, 307 

general, local, and uses, 307 
Anaesthetics, 258 

in major operations, 258 

in horse, ox and dog, 258 

in minor operations, 258 

in horse, ox and dog, 258 
Analysis, 3 
Anaphylaxis, 143 
Anasarca, 144 
Anatomy, histological, 99 

obstetrical, 259 

soft organs concerned in, 259 

topographical, 98 
Anchylosis, defined, 214 j 
Anchylostoma, 197 

^ animals attacked by, 197 



Anchylostoma, symptoms and treatment, 

197 
Aneurism, 149 
causes, 187 
defined, 217 
false, 217 
of coeliac and mesenteric arteries, 149 

cause of, 149 
symptoms and treatment, 187 
true, 217 
varieties of, 217 
Angioma, 146 
Animal heat, 128 

conditions influencing, 128 
how maintained, 128 
how regulated, 128 
in cold-blooded animals, 128 
in warm-blooded animals, 128 
Ante-mortem examination of food-animals 

355 
Anthelmintics, 325 
Anthrax, in cattle, 175 
bacillus of, 172 
com'se, 175 
cutaneous form, 175 
differentiated from malignant oedema, 

166 
disinfecting sliips, 348 
immunization in, 341 
method of procedure in outbreak, 

349 
post-mortem lesions, 158 
symptoms, 175 
Antibodies, 167, 168 
Antidotes, chemical, 39 

differentiated from antagonists, 338 
for poisoning by aconite, 339 
by alkaloids, 38 
by arsenic, 338 
by atropine, 340 
by chloral hydrate, 340 
by chloroform, 340 
by corrosive sublimate, 338 
by lead, 339 
by mercury, 339 
by morphine, 340 
by strychnine, 340 
mechanical and physiological, 39 
Antimony, 34 
Antiphlogistics, 210, 331 
Antipyrine, 310, 317 
Antiseptic, defined, 161, 329 
economic, 316 
for wounds, 309 
wound treatment, 206 
Antiseptics, 24 
Antitoxin, 163, 341 
tetanus, dose, 343 

soiu-ce, unit, and use, 343 
treatment, 341 
Anus, imperforated, treatment, 296 
Aorta, anterior branches, common, 64 

posterior, branches of, 63 
Aphrodisiac, 320 



i 



INDEX 



369 



Aphthae epizooticae, 176 

symptoms and treatment, 176 
Apnoea, 114 
Apomorphine, for the dog, 308 

administration and dose, 308 
use, 308, 316 

hydrochloride, dose, 327 
Aponeuroses, 57 
Apoplexy, 155 

parturient, 287 
Aqueous humor, 93, 94 
Arachnoid, anatomy, 71 

physiology, 133 
Areca nut, a vermifuge, dose, 316 

use and constituents of, 324 
ArecoUne hydrobromide, actions, 303 

dose, 303, 312 
Argyrol, 27 
Ai'senic, 33 

actions and administration, 303 

antidote for, 39, 338 

compounds of, used in medicine, 38 

Fowler's solution of, 33 

Marsh's test for, 33 

poisoning by, symptoms, 338 

preparations used in medicine, 303, 
327 

trioxide, 33 

uses, 303 
Arteries, anterior mesenteric, 63 

anterior tibial, 65 

axillary and brachial, 64 

broncho-oesophageal, 63 

collateral of cannon, 64 

digital, 64 

external carotid and ihac, 65 

external pudic, 92 

femoral, 66 

function, 110 

gastric, 66 

glossofacial, 65 

hepatic, 66 

histologically described, 99 

humeral, 64 

ihac, 64 

inflammation of, 217 

intercostal, 63 

internal iliacs, 66 
maxillary, 65 
pudic, 92 

lumbar, 63 

middle sacral, 63 

perpendicular, 64 

phrenic, 63 

plantar ungual, 64 

popliteal, 65 

posterior mesenteric, 63 
radial, 64 

preplantar ungual, 64 

renal, 63 

small testicular, 64 

spermatic, 63, 92 

splenic, 66 

superficial temporal, 65 



Arteries, umbihcal, 67 

uterine, 66 

vertebral. 65 
Arteritis, causes, defined, 217 
Arthritis, defined, 148, 214 

deforming, 214, 248 
lesions of, 148 

serous, suppurative, and tubercular, 
214 

varieties of, 214 
Arthrology, 51 
Articulations, 51 

atlo-axoid, 52 

classes, 51 

costochondral and costostemal, 53 

coxofemoral and femorotibial, 56 

humeroradial, 53 

interphalangeal, 55 

of the tarsus, 56 

of the vertebrae, 52 

radiocarpal, 54 

scapulohumeral, 53 

structures entering into, 52 
Atrophy, 141, 143 

causes of, 143 
Ascaris megalocephala, 195 

prescription for, 195 
symptoms, 195 
Ascites, causes, 198 ^ 

defined, 198 

in the dog, causes, symptoms and 
treatment, 231 
Asepsis, defined, 161 
Aseptic wound treatment, 206 
Asphyxia, 115 

in new-bom, 294 

treatment, 294 

stages of, 115 
Aspidium, dose, 324, 325 

oleoresin, 325 

precautions in administering, 324 

value of, 324 
Asthma, bronchial, 189 

animal most susceptible to, 189 

causes, symptoms and treatment, 189 
Atavism, 361 
Atelectasis, 151 
Atom, 3 

Atomic weight, 5 
Atlas, vertebra, 48 

articulation of, 52 
Atropine, action, 309 

poisoning by, symptoms and antidote, 
340 

source, 309 

sulphate, dose of, 312 
Auditory nerve, 75 

function of, 135, 137 
Augmentation, defined, 133 
Auscultation, 171 
Autogenous vaccine, 344 
Auto-intoxication, 142 
Automatism, defined, 133 
Avogadro's law, 12 



370 



INDEX 



Axis, vertebrse, 48 

articulations of, 52 
Azoturia, 183 

differentiated from spinal meningitis, 
169 

etiology, 183 

pathology of, 154 

prevention of, 183 

symptoms, 183 

treatment, 183, 329 

Bacillus, 160 

Bang's, 161, 277 

Johne's, 179 

Koch's, 161 

necrophorus, 163 

Nicolaier's, 161 

of anthrax, tetanus and tuberculosis, 
162 

paratuberculosis, 163 
Bacteria, pathogenic, methods of dis- 
semination, 348 
Bacteriaceae, 160 
Bacterin therapy, 344 
Bacteriology, 160 
Bacteriologic examination, 163 

collecting tissues for, 163 
Bacterium, 160 

lactic acid, 42 

method of producing disease, 164 

Migula's classification of, 160 

resistant to disinfectants, 348 
Balanced rations, 127, 360 
Balsam copaiba, dose, 318 

Peru, actions, 325 

dose, source, and use, 325 
Bang, bacillus of, 161, 277 

method of eradicating tuberculosis, 
350 
Barium, 29, 30 

chloride, 30 

dose, and indications for, 299 
Bar-shoe, contra-indicated, 256 

in corns, 254 

in laminitis, 255 

in thrush, 254 

uses of, 256 
Base, 3 

Bayer's operation for quittor, 252 
Beef, cold slaughtered, 355 

detection of, 355 

physiological conditions rendering un- 
fit, 354 
Beggiatoa, 160 
Beggiatocese, 160 
Belladonna, actions and uses, 308 
Bell metal, 12 
Benzoated lard, 309 

preparation of and uses, 309 
Bessemer process, 32 
Bile, 120 

functions of, 120 

result of suspended secretion of, 109 

salts of, 103 



Bile, secretion in equine and bovine com- 
pared, 120 
Bishoping, method of, 226 
Bismuth, 31 
citrate, 31 

salts of, action externally, 314 
subcarbonate, 31 
subgallate, 31 
subnitrate, 31 

actions and dose, 314 
subsalicylate, 31 
Bitters, vegetable, 322 
Bladder, urinary, anatomy, 89 

paralysis of, in horse and dog, 233 
causes, symptoms and treatment, 
233 
prolapse of, in mare, treatment, 233 
rupture of, causes, symptoms and 
treatment, 233 
Blastoderm, function of, 273 

membranes of, 273 
Bleaching powder, 8 
BUstering agents, 313 

for different animals, 313 
Bloating, accompanying choke, 222 

in cattle, 192 
Blood, amount of, in horse, 107 

arterial and venous compared, 108 
cause of alkalinity, 108 
circulation of, in brain, 112 
coagulation of, 108 
color of, in renal veins, 108 
composition of, 101, 106, 107 
defined, 106 

flow of, in arteries and veins. 111 
forces that cause circulation of, 110 
function of, in secretion, 104 
gases found in, 107 
inflammatory appearances of, 210 
oxygen, how carried in, 108 
pathology of, 146 
pressure. 111 

factors that decrease and in- 
crease, 111 
governed. 111 
highest and lowest, 111 
proteids of, 107 
velocity of. 111 

greatest and lowest, 111 
vessels, 100 

diseases of, 217 
pathology of, 148 
Blood-clot, 147 

ante-mortem and post-mortem com- 
pared, 147 
Blow-pipe, oxyhydrogen, 15 
Blue vitriol, 7 
Bones, 44 
atlas, 48 
axis, 48 

blood supply of, 66 
carpal, 48 
cuneiform, 48 
development of, 44 



INDEX 



371 



Bones, femur, fracture of, 246 

frontal of the ox, 45 

ilium and ischium, 50 

inferior maxillary, 46 

inflammation of, 212 

lunar, 48 

number of, in the horse, 44 

of the cranium, 44 

of the ear, 137 

of the foot, 48 

of the fore limb, horse and ox, 47 

of the head, 44 

of the hind limb, 50 

of the pelvis, 50 

OS innominatum, 50 

pathology of, 147 

pedal, 48 

pisiform, 48 

properties of, 44, 105 

pubis, 50 

ribs, 51 

sacrum, 50 

scaphoid, 48 

scapula, 47 

superior maxillary, 45 

trapezoid, 48 

ulna, 47 

unciform, 48 
Bob-veal, 353 

method of detection, 353 

relation to health, 353 
Body, excreting organs of, 105 

inorganic constituents of, 106 

secreting organs of, 105 

vital organs of, 105 
Borax, 31 
Boric acid, 31 
Boron, 31 

Bots, in throat of solipeds, 188 
Boyle's law, 1 
Brain, anaemia of, pathology, 155 

anatomy, 71, 72 

circulation of blood in, 112 

hypersemia of, 200 

membranes of, 71, 133 
fimction of, 133 
Brandy, 35 
Brass, 12 

Breathing, Cheyne-Stokes, 166 
Broken knee, treatment of, 241 
Bromine, preparation of, 27 

uses in medicine, 27 
Bronchitis, inhalation, 188 
causes of, 188 
symptoms, 189 

verminous, treatment in calves, 189 
Bronchopneumonia, 188 

appearance of lungs in, 151 
Bunsen burner, 22 

Caecum, anatomy, 83 
capacity of, 83 
horse and ox compared, 83 
puncturing, tissues involved in, 232 



Caecum, pimcturing, unsatisfactory results 

in, 232 
Caesium, 29 

Caffeine, actions, dose and use of, 327 
Calabar bean, alkaloid of, 312 
Calcification, 144 
Calcium, 29 
carbide, 22 
hydroxide, 11 
h3rpochlorite, 8 
sulphate, 30 
Calculus, defined, 212 

saHvary, treatment, 227 
urinary, symptoms and treatment, 223 
varieties of, 212 
Calomel, 28, 299 

preparation and properties of, 28 
uses, 299 
Calorie, large and small, 129 
Camphor, actions, dose, source and uses, 

327 
Canal, auditory, 95 
Haversian, 105 
infra-orbital, 46 
inguinal, 62 
lachrymal, 45 
maxillodental, 46 
palatine, 45 
Cancer, varieties of, 145 
Canker, 254 

differentiated from thrush, 254 
prognosis, 254 

symptoms and treatment, 254 
Cannabis indica, actions and use, 324 
dose for dog and horse, 324 
Cantharides, actions and uses, 302 
active principles of, 314 
source, 314 
Capped hock, causes, definition and treat- 
ment, 249 
Carbohydrates, 34, 41, 360 

differentiated from hydrocarbons, 34, 
41 
Carbohc acid, 37 

antidote for, 40 
source, 37 
Carbon, 20 ^ 

allotropic forms of, 21 
amorphous, 21 
dioxide, 11, 21 

effect on health, 20 
preparation of, 21 
test for, 22 

weight compared with air, 22 
element of proteids, 106 
monoxide, 11 
reducing agent, 21 
Cardiac cycle, 110 
hjrpertrophy, 148 

causes and lesions of, 148 
Caries, defined, 148, 213 
of the teeth, 224 
causes of, 148 
treatment, 224 



372 



INDEX 



Carpus, structures of, 54 
Cartilage, articular, function of, 105 

development of bone from, 44 

ensiform, 49 

lateral, 55 

function of, 55, 138 

of prolongation, 47 

xiphoid, 49 
Caruncle, 136 
Cascara sagrada, 319 

dose, source and uses, 319 
Cascarilla, actions, dose and use, 322 
Casting, accidents in, 257 

methods of, in horse and ox, 257 
Castor oil, actions and dose, 322 
Castration, diseases resulting from, 234 

hemorrhage following, 208, 234 

in the male, 234 

ill effects following, 234 

tissues cut in, 235 
Casts, urinary, 153 

blood, 153 

epithelial, 153 

fatty, 153 

granular, 153 

hyaline, 153 

in acute parenchymatous nephritis, 153 

in chronic interstitial nephritis, 153 

in chronic parenchymatous nephritis, 
153 

varieties, 153 

waxy, 153 
Catabolism, 40, 126 
Cataplasm, 329 
Cataract, conditions giving rise to, 219 

defined, diagnosis, and forms of, 219 
Cathartics, classes of, 298 

vegetable, 322 
Catheterization, operation of, 233 

in cow, gelding, mare and steer, 233 
Caudal myotomy, object, 239 
Caustic alkali, 3, 39 

liquid, 29 

lunar, 27 
Cautery, actual, 245 

value of, 245 
Cavity, abdominal, regions of, 99 

glenoid, 51 
Cell division, 102 

direct and indirect, 102 

physiology and properties of, 102 
Cerebellum, effect of its removal, 133 

function of, 133 
Cerebral anaemia and hyperaemia, 200 
Cerebrospinal meningitis, see Meningitis 
Cerebrum, anatomy, 72 

function, 133 
Cervix uteri, laceration of, 289 

treatment, 289 
Cesarean section, in mare, 281 

complications of, 281 
in multiparous animals, 282 
Chabert method of opening guttural 
pouch, 220 



Chemical action, 5 

affinity, 3 

calculations, 12, 13 

change, 2 

equations, 8, 9, 10 

prefixes, 8 

suffixes, 7 
Chemistry, 1, 2 

distinguished from physics, 1 

inorganic, 2 

organic, 34 

physiological, 40 
Chestnut, anatomy, 95 
Cheyne-Stokes breathing, 166 
Choke, in the cow, treatment, 222 

oesophagotomy in, 221 

treatment of, 221 
Chordae tendinae, 103 
Chorea, in the dog, causes, symptoms and 

treatment, 200 
Chorion, 274 
Choroid, anatomy, 93 
Chlamydobacteriaceae, 160 
Chloral, 36, 313 

hydrate, 36 

actions, dose and preparation of, 

313 
compared with chloroform, 36 
uses in medicine, 36, 313 
Chlorine, compounds of, 26 

preparation and uses of, 26 
Chlorof9rm, 36 

actions and uses of, 324 

action of, compared with ether, 315 

compared with chloral, 36 

dose for dog and horse, 324 

preparation of, 36 

test for bile in urine, 42 
Chyle, 103 

compared with chyme, 119 
with lymph, 120 
Chyme, 119 

compared with chyle, 119 
Circulation, fetal, 67 

of blood in the brain, 112 

in the kidney, 112 

pulmonary, 67, 110 

systemic, 67, 110 
Circulatory organs, anatomy, 62 
Cladothrix, 160 

Clipping, arguments for and against, 130 
Clitoris, anatomy, 93, 261 
Coal-tar products used in medicine, 317 
Cocaine, actions and dose, 318 

prescription for, 333 
Coccaceae, 160 
Coccidia, 197 

animals infested by, 197 

diagnosis, prevention and treatment, 
197 

in the skin, 203 

oviforme, 203 
Coeliac axis, 66 
Ccenurus cerebralis, 200 



INDEX 



373 



Colic, crapulous, symptoms and treatment, 
194 
engorgement, 194 
flatulent, prescription for, 337 
in pregnant animals, causes and treat- 
ment, 292 
nervous, symptoms and treatment, 

194 
spasmodic, 194 

differentiated from enteritis, 170 
prescription for, 334 
thrombo-embolic, 196 
Collar-galls, treatment for, 229 
Collargol, 27 
Collyrium, defined, 304 
Colon, anatomy, 82 
double, 82 

fimction of, in digestion, 120 
floating, 83 
Colostrimi, composition of, 269 
Combustion, 3, 17 
Complement, 160, 167, 168, 342 
Complement-fixation test for glanders, 167 

for abortion, 182 
Compounds, 3 

distinguished from mixtures, 9 
inorganic and organic, 7 
Concrements, 212 
Condyle, 51 
Congestion, active, 149 
of lungs, 190 

causes, 149, 190 
lesions, 150 

symptoms and treatment, 190 
passive, 149 

difference between active and, 149 
Conjunctiva, inflammation of, 217 

physiology, 136 
Conjunctivitis, acute catarrhal, 217 

causes, symptoms and treatment, 217 
Connective tissue, anatomy, 101 

varieties of, 101 
Constipation, in dog, 197 
in hog, treatment, 330 
prescription for, 337 
symptoms, 197 
Contagious disease, 165, 347 

contributing causes of, 348 

disinfecting in, 347 

important factors in prevention, 

350 
method of handling, 348 
Contagious pleuropneumonia, 175 

appearance of lungs in, 151 
course of, 175 

differentiated from influenza, 170 
sanitary police measures, 349 
symptoms, termination and treat- 
ment of, 175 
Contracted hoof, treatment, 256 
tendons, 241 
operation for, 241 
shoe for, 241 
Coordination, defined, 133 



Copper acetate, 35 
uses, 315 
arsenite, uses, 315 

preparation of, used in medicine, 315 
sulphate, 7, 24 

preparation of, 24 
uses of, 315 
Cornea, anatomy, 93 
Corns, dry, 253 

pathology of, 253 
side-bones, relation to, 254 
suppurating, 253 
treatment, 253, 254 
Corona, fracture of, 251 

symptoms and treatment, 251 
Coronary cushion, anatomy, 96 

function of, 138 
Corpora libra, 214 

nigra, function of, 137 
quadrigemina, anatomy, 72 
Corpus luteum, 265 

false and true, in cow and sow, 
265 
Corpuscles, Malpighian, 97, 112 

red blood-, function, size and shape of, 

107 
white blood-, function, 107 
Corrosive sublimate, 7, 28 

antidote for, 39 
Corti, membrane of, 137 
Cotton-seed meal, 199 

effects of overfeeding, 199 
Cotyledons, animals in which found, 271 

fetal and maternal compared, 266 
Coimterirritants, 313, 339 

indications for, 313 
Cow, characteristics of a good milch, 

363 
Cowpox, causes, 173 
extinction of, 173 
sequelae of, 173 

symptoms and treatment, 173, 174 
Coxitis, 245 
Creatine, 127 
Creatinine, 127 
Crenothrix, 160 
Crith, 5 

Cross-breeding, 361 
Croton on, action, 328 

antidote for, and derivation of, 

328 
dose, toxic, 328 
properties and uses of, 328 
Crude fibre, 360 

Cryptorchidism, cause of sterility, 293 
CrystaUine lens, anatomy, 93 
Culture, defined, 161 
pure, 161 
media, 161 
Cuneiform bone, anatomy, 48 
Curb, causes of unsoundness, 362 
defined, 249 
treatment for, 249 
Curd, 42 



374 



INDEX 



Cushion, coronary, 96 

elastic, of heel, 95 

plantar, 95, 96 
Cyanosis, age liable to occur, 187 

causes of, 187 

in new-born, cause and symptoms, 296 
Cystic calculi, symptoms and treatment 
of, 232 

ovary, pathologj'- of, 154 
Cysticercus cellulosse, disease caused by, 353 

disposition of carcass, 353 

life-cycle of, 353 
Cystitis, urinary, 141, 185 

causes, diagnosis and treatment, 185 
Cysts, defined, 146 

degeneration, 146 

foreign body, 146 

parasitic, 146 

retention, 146 

Dairy cattle, breeds of, 361 

hygienic precautions in, 355 
Dandruff, 124, 156 
Dartos, anatomy, 92 
Deafness in the dog, causes of, 220 
Death by asphy^xia, 115 

by lightning, lesions of, 142 
Decay, 34 

Decidua vera, function of, in cat, 139 
Decoction, defined, 304 
Decussation, defined, 104 
Degeneration, fatty, 143 

differentiated from fatty infiltra- 
tion, 143 
Deglutition, organs of, 77, 80 
Dehorning, methods of, in cattle, 228 
Deliquescence, 3 
Demodex foUiculorum, 203, 204 
Dental formula, dog, 78, 79 
horse, 78, 79, 115 
ox, 78, 79, 115 
Dentition, process of, from birth to five 

years, 365 
Deodorant, 24, 329 
Dermatitis, gangrenous, 203 

course, sjTuptoms and treatment, 
203 
Descemet's membrane, 94 
Desmotomy, patellar, 247 

object of, 247 
Development, physiology, 139 
Diabetes, forms of, 184 

insipidus, 184 

mellitus, 184 

treatment, 184 
Diad, 4 

Diagnostic inoculation, 171 
Diagnosis, general and differential, 165 
Dialysis, 2 
Diamond, 21, 23 
Diaphoretic, 320 
Diaphragm, anatomy, 61 

of the horse and ox compared, 61 

rupture of, symptoms of, 229 



Diarrhoea in new-born, causes and treat- 
ment, 194 

prescription for, 333 
Diarthrosis, 52 
Diastole, 109 
Diet for a dairy cow, 127 
for a horse, 127 
Diffusion, 6, 41 

of gases, 6 
Digestion, action of salt in, 122 

conditions that retard, 122 

of proteids, 118 

organs of, 77 

steps in process of, 115 
Digestive organs, anatomy, 77 
Digitaline, action of, 317 

source of, 312 
Digitahs, action of, on heart, 109, 326 

compared with aconite, 324 

active principles of, 315 

fiuidextract, dose, 318 
Diseases, 165 

acute general infectious, 172 

chronic infectious, 179 

communicable to man, 354 

contagious, 165 

contributing causes of, 348 

following parturition, 284 

incident to pregnancy and labor, 284 

infectious, 165, 347 

and contagious differentiated, 165 

inflammatory, 353 

milk transmission of, 356 

non-inflammatory, 353 

of the abdomen, 229 

of the blood and blood-forming organs 
182 . 

of blood-vessels, 217 

of circulatory organs, 186 

of the digestive organs, 191 

of the foot, 250 

of the fore limb, 239 

of the generative organs, 234 

of the hind limb, 245 

of the nervous system, 199 

of the new-born, 294 

of the organs of locomotion, 201 

of the respiratory organs, 188 

of the skin, 202 

precautions in treating smaller 
animals in, 338 

of the spinal column and pelvis, 238 

of the thorax, 228 

of urinary organs, 184, 232 

rendering meat unfit for food, 351 

specific infectious, 178 
Disinfectants, 24 

chemical, 350 

defined, 161, 329 

natural, 350 

use of formaldehyde as, 25 
Disinfection, defined, 141, 350 

of ships, 348 

of stables, 347 



INDEX 



375 



Distemper in the dog, symptoms, 176 
Distillation, 14 
Distoma hepaticum, 198 
Distomiasis in sheep, 198 

causes, symptoms and treatment, 
198 
Diuretic, 320 

for cow, dog and horse, 318 
liquid and powdered, 314 
Dog distemper, symptoms of, 176 
Dose, lethal and toxic, 298 
Dourine, cause and dej&nition of, 181 
sanitary poUce measures in, 349 
symptoms, 181 
treatment, 182 
Dover's powder, 328 

composition and uses, 328 
Dropsy of the abdomen, 187 
of the limbs, causes, 187 
Drugs acting chemically, 332 
mechanically, 332 
on the alimentary canal, 331 
on the glandular structures, 299, 

331 
on the nervous system, 331 
on the pupil of the eye, 319 
on the reproductive organs, 332 
on the respiratory organs, 331 
Duct, mammary, 91 

stenosis of, symptoms and treat- 
ment, 238 
Ductless glands, anatomy, 96 
Ductus arteriosus, 68 
choledochus, 84 
venous, 67 
Dummy, see Chronic hydrocephalus 
Duodenum, anatomy, 82 
Dura mater, anatomy, 71 
physiology, 133 
Dysentery, chronic bacterial, see Johne's 

disease 
Dyspnoea, 114 
Dystocia, 264, 279-284 
causes of, 279 
fetal and maternal, 279 

Ear, bones of, 137 

diseases of, 217 
E. C. mixture, 305 
Ectropion, defined, 218 
Eczema, chronic squamous, 205 

causes, symptoms and treat 
ment, 205 

stages of, 156 

treatment, in dog, 323 
Efflorescence, 3 
Elastic cushion of heel, 95 
Elements, 6 
Electricity, 6 
Electrolysis, 2 
Electrolyte, 2 
Electro-plating, 2 
Electuary, defined, 304 
Ehmination, 102, 103 



Elimination, four ways of, 103 

organs of, 102 
Elixir, defined, 304 
Embohsm, 149 
Embryology, 265 
Embryotomy, 265 
Emetics, 316 

animals given to, 326 
definition of, 326 
Emmenagogue, 267 
Emmenagogues, two principal, 267 
Emphysema, pulmonary, 191 
lesions, 150 

symptoms and treatment, 191 
in facial sinuses, 223 
in frontal sinuses, 223 
in guttural pouches, 220 

diagnosis and symptoms, 220 
in nasal sinuses, treatment, 223 
Emulsion, 8, 304 

difference from solution, 8 
Encephalitis, 200 

Endometritis, acute, causes, symptoms and 
treatment, 288 
chronic, symptoms and treatment, 
288 
Endotoxin, 163 

Enteritis, chronica paratuberculosa, see 
Johne's disease 
catarrhal, acute and chronic, 152 
intestinal lesions in, 152 
Enterocentesis, described, 232 
indications for, 232 
tissues involved in, 232 
imsatisfactory results in, 232 
Enterokinase, 116, 119 
Enterohths, description of, 152 
Entropion, defined, 218 
Environment, influence on offspring, 362 
Enzymes, 116, 118, 119 
Epiblast, function of, 273 
Epididymis, 92 

Epididymitis, sterility from, 293 
Epistaxis, causes, 188, 223 
defined, 188, 223 
treatment, 223 
Epithehomata, cylindrical, 145 

squamous, 145 
Epithehum, columnar, 101 
histology, 101 
kinds of, 101 
modified, 101 
specialized, 101 
squamous, 101 
Epizootic ceUulitis, 175 

symptoms and treatment, 175 
lymphangitis, 179 

symptoms, prognosis and treat- 
ment, 179 
Epsom salts, 30 

administration of, to a cow, 317 ' 
distinguished from zinc sulphate, 

31 
preparation of, 30 



376 



INDEX 



Equations, 8, 9, 10 
Erepsin, 116, 119 
Ergot, actions of, 302 

anatomy, 95 

dose for dog and horse, 320 

indications for use in labor, 280 

poisoning in cattle, 198 

forms of, and symptoms, 198 

source, 320 

uses of, 302 
Ergotine, source of, 312 
Ergotism in cattle, 198 

forms and symptoms of, 198 
Erythema, 204 

causes, prevention and treatment, 
204 
Eserine, actions, 312 

dose for dog, horse and ox, 312 

som*ce and uses, 312 
Esmarch's bandage, 208 
Ether, compared with chloroform, 315 

dose, 320 

effects and uses of, 320 
Eupnoea, 114 
Eustachian catheter, 220 

tube, anatomy, 95 

epithelium of, 101 
function of, 95, 137 
Eutocia, 264, 278 
Evaporation, 2 
Excretion, four ways of, 103 

organs of, 102, 103, 105 
Expectorants, 322 

nauseating and stimulating, 322 
Exosmosis, defined, 104 
Exotoxin, 163 

Exudates, inflammatory, 144 
Exudation, difference from secretion, 

104 
Eye, anatomy, 93, 94 

appendages of, 136 

diseases of, 217 

enucleation of, 219 

muscles, 93 

pathology, 155 

tunics, 93, 94 
Eyeball, anatomy, 93 

muscles and structures of, 93 

tunics of, 93, 94 
Eyelashes, 136 
EyeHds, 136 

Facial nerve, 75 

function of, 135 
paralysis, 224, 258 

causes, symptoms and treatment, 
224 
sinuses, 85 

trephining, 223 
Faeces, average amount of, in horse and 
cow compared, 126 
composition of, 103, 120 
of herbivora and carnivora compared, 
120 



Fallopian tubes, function of, 264 
Farcy, 180 

differentiated from acute lymphangi- 
tis, 169 
tissue changes in, 157 
Fats, 41, 360 

palmitin, steapsin, and olein, 41 
Fatty degeneration, 143 

differentiated from fatty infiltra- 
tion, 143 
infiltration, 143 

differentiated from fatty degen- 
eration, 143 
Favus, symptoms and treatment, 202 
Fecundation, 264 
Feeding, precautions as regards rest, 350 

watering, 345 
Feeling, impressions obtained through, 

138 
Fehling's solution, use of, 43 
Fermentation, 34, 103 
Ferments acting on milk, 118 

on proteids and starch, 116 
defined, 103 
digestive, 116 
of pancreatic juice, 121 
Ferrous chloride, 11, 32, 302 
uses of, 317 
phosphate, 302 
uses of, 317 
sulphate, 32, 302 
dose, 309 
preparation of, 32 
uses in medicine, 32, 317 
vermifuge, 316 
Fever, caused by infection, 141 

by nervous disorder, 141 
by poison, 141 
methods of reduction of, 310 
Fibrin, composition of, 108 

globulin, 107 
Fibrinogen, 101, 107, 108 
Filaria immitis, 183 

conditions produced by, 183 
where found, 183 
Filtration, 14 
Firing, 245 

diagram of, 214 
Fistula, bone, 211 
defined, 144, 210 
ear, 211 

lachrymal, treatment of, 219 
milk, 211 

of the lateral cartilage, 211, 251 
of the spermatic cord, 211 
of the withers, 211, 229 

treatment, 229 
salivary, 227 

causes, symptoms and treatment, 
227 
Fistulse, ten important, 211 
Fistulous withers, chronic, 229 

symptoms and treatment, 229 
Flagella, 160 



INDEX 



377 



Flatulency, gastric, 193 

causes and sjrmptoms, 193 
treatment, 193, 313 
surgical, 229 
Fleas, 203 

Fluidextracts, preparation of, 320 
Foal-lameness, 296 

causes, symptoms and treatment, 296 
Foetus, dead, in utero, diagnosis, 284 
envelopes surrounding, 274 
extraction of, mechanical means, 280 
phenomena of nutrition of, 271 
position of, in ninth month, 275 
secretions of, 267 
skin of, development, 275 
Fomentation, 329 
Foods, 127 

ante-mortem examination of animals 

for, 355 
carbohydrate, 127 
conditions of causing paralysis, 155 
fat, 127 

inorganic matter in, 127 
non-nitrogenous, 127 

effete materials produced by, 127 
proteid, 127 

ultimate results of, 127 
Foot, diseases affecting, 156, 250 
physiology, 138 

provisions for preventing concussion 
in, 138 
Foot and mouth disease, 176 
pathology, 158 

prognosis and symptoms of, 176 
sanitary police measures in, 349 
Forage poisoning, cryptogamic, 169 

differentiated from lead poison- 
ing, 169 
hygienic measures in, 349 
symptoms of, 201 
Foraging overcome by shoeing, 256 
Foramen, 51 

infra-orbital, 45 
magnum, 98 
mental, 46 
ovale, 68, 98 
Formaldehyde, use of, in disinfecting, 25 
Formahn, used in white scours, 178 
Fowler's solution, 308 

composition and uses, 308 
dose for dog and horse, 308 
Fracture, comminuted, 213 
compound, 213 
conditions rendering bones liable to, 

213 
defined, 213 
modes of union in, 213 
of the femur, 246 

diagnosis and prognosis, 246 
of the ilium, 239, 245 

prognosis and treatment, 239 
of the ischial tuberosity, 238 

prognosis, symptoms and treat- 
ment, 238 



Fracture of the metacarpus, 243 

symptoms and treatment, 243 
of the navicular bone, 250 

prognosis, symptoms and treat- 
ment, 250 
of the OS corona, 251 

symptoms and treatment, 251 
of the OS suffraginis, 243 

symptoms and treatment, 243 
of the ulna, 241 

prognosis, symptoms and treat- 
ment, 241 
pelvic, 238, 239 

plaster-of-Paris dressing for, 213 
reparative process of, 147 
ribs, symptoms and treatment, 229 
simple, 213 
varieties of, 213 
Frog, use of, 138 
Frontal bone, anatomy, 45 
Fur, compared with hair and wool, 124 

Gall-stones, 195 

factors producing, 195 
prophylaxis and therapeutics, 195 
Ganglion, Arnold's, 75 
cihary, 75 
Meckel's, 75 
ophthalmic, 75 
otic, 75 

sphenopalatine, 75 
sympathetic, 77, 136 
vertebral, 136 
Gangrene, defined, 143, 211 
kinds of, 211 
of the lungs, 190 

post-mortem appearance of, 150 
treatment, 211 
Gapes, 190 

causes, symptoms and treatment, 190 
Gas, calculations, 1 

laughing, 18 
Gastric juice, composition of, 118 

source of hydrochloric acid in, 
118 
Generation, four stages in, 272 

physiology, 139 
Generative organs, changes in, after con- 
ception, 269 
female, function of, 265 
modifications after labor, 266 
system, chief fimctions of, 264 
Genitals of the cow, 92 

diseases of, 234 
Gentian root, 312 

action, 322 

dose for dog, horse and ox, 312, 

322 
uses, 312, 322 
Grerman silver, 12 
Gestation, 269 

abdominal, ovarian, and tubal, 270 
Gid, in sheep, 200 

causes and symptoms, 200 



378 



INDEX 



Glanders, 180 

cause, course and symptoms of, 180 

chronic, 157 

tissue changes in, 157, 160 

complement-fixation test for, 167 

diagnostic tests for, 166-168 

differentiated from strangles, 169 
from nasal gleet, 169 

hygienic and sanitary precautions in, 
347 

nasal ulcer in, 157 
Glands, adrenal, 96, 98 

Briinner's, 119 

Cowper's, 264 

ductless, 96 

lachrymal, 94 

lieberkiilm's, 119 

mammary, 91, 140, 263 

pituitary, 97 

prostate, 92, 264 
disease of, 236 

salivary, 80 

sebaceous, 95, 124 

sudoriparous, 124 

sweat, 95, 123 

thymus, 97, 98 

thyroid, 97 

vascular, 112 
Glass, 12 

Glauber's salt, 7, 29, 300 
Glaucoma, defined, 218 
Gleet, defined, 223 
Globus major, 92 
Glossitis, causes of, 191 

definition of, 191 
Glossopharyngeal nerve, 75 

function of, 135 
Glucose in tissues, 127 

in urine, 121 

relation of pancreas to, 121 
Glycerine, preparation of, 38 
Glycogen, 121 

destination and origin of, 127 
Glycosuria, relations of pancreas to, 121 
Goitre, cystic, in dog, treatment, 228 

prognosis and treatment, 228 

in the dog and horse, 228 
Gold, 27 

test for, 27 
Goll's column, 103 
Goulard's extract, 310 

preparation and uses of, 310 
Graafian follicle, 139 

development and maturation of. 
139 
Grade, 361 
Gram differential stain, 164 

negative and positive, 164 
Gramme, defined, 306 
Granular venereal disease, in abortion, 

182 
Graphic formula, 11, 24 
Graphite, 21 
Gypsum, 30 



Guttural pouch, anatomy, 86 
fimction of, 86 
method of opening, 220 

Chabert, 220 

Viborg, 220 
pus in, 220 

diagnosis and symptoms, 220 

Haematm, 103, 109 
Hsematoidin, 109 
Haematuria, 153 
Haemoglobin, 107 

combination with oxygen, 108 
semoglobinuria, 153, 183 

differentiated from spinal meningitis, 

169 
etiology, 183 
pathology of, 154 
prevention and symptoms of, 183 
treatment, 183, 329 
Haemolysis, 108, 167, 168 
Haemophilia, definition of, 182 
Haemopis sanguisuga, 188 
Hair, 95 

compared with fur and wool, 124 
precautions to Hmit injurious growth 
of, 125 
Halogens, 25 
Haustus, defined, 304 
Haversian canals, 105 
Healing of wounds, 207 

by first intention, 207 

by granulation and cicatrization, 

207 
by second intention, 207 
by third intention, 207 
under an eschar, 207 
Hearing, mechanism of, 137 
Heart, action of digitalis on, 109 
anatomy, 62, 63 
disease, lesions of, 148 
hypertrophy, 148 

causes and lesions of, 148 
muscle, 130 

motor excitant of, 317 
physiology of, 109 
sounds, cause of, 109 
Heat, 5 

animal, conditions influencing, 128 
how maintained and regulated, 
128 
stroke, 201 

differentiated from heat exhaus- 
tion, 166 
symptoms, 201 
treatment, 201, 314 
tissues producing greatest amount of, 

129 
unit of, 129 

exhaustion, differentiated from heat 
stroke, 166 
Heaves, symptoms and treatment, 191 

lesions, 150 
Hematite, 32 



INDEX 



379 



Hemorrhage, 165 

drugs checking, 310 

following castration, 208, 234 

internal, 165 

methods of arresting, 208 

postpartum, treatment, 290 
Hemorrhagic septicaemia, 174 

post-mortem lesions of, 159 
symptoms of, 174 
Hepatitis, acute parenchjTnatous, in dog, 
symptoms and treatment, 198 

chronic interstitial, 152 

appearance of liver in, 152 
Hepatization, gray, 150 

pulmonary, changes in air-ceUs in, 150 

red, 150 
Hereditary, 361 

diseases, 363 
Heredity, influence on offspring, 362 
Hermaphrodism, 296 

external sexual organs in, 296 
Hernia, classification of, 212 

defined, 212 ^ 

diaphragmatic, symptoms, 229 

inguinal, symptoms and treatment, 230 

irreducible, 212 

of bladder into vagina, 292 
reduction of, 292 

reducible, 212 

imibihcal, treatment of, 230 
Heroin, action and uses of, 315 
Histological anatomy, 99 
Hobbles, use in casting, 257 
Hog, methods of medicating, 330 
Hog-cholera, symptoms of, 172 

causes of, 163 

immunization in, 341 

simultaneous method of, 343 

lesions of, 160 

prophylactic measures in, 173 

serum, how obtained, use, 342 
Hoof, anatomy, 95 

secretion of, 138 
Hoose, 189 
Hoove, 192 
Horns, anatomy, 95 
Horse-pox, symptoms and treatment, 173 

causes of ,^ and extinction, 173 
Hoven, 192 
Hmnor, aqueous, 93 

of the eye, 94 

vitreous, 93 
Hunger, cause of sensation, 119 

mange, see Chronic squamous eczema 
Husk, 189 
Hydrargyri chloridum mite, 299 

actions, dose and uses, 299 

chloridum corrosivum, 299 

actions, doses and uses, 299 

iodidum rubrum, 299 

actions, doses and uses, 299 
Hydrocarbons, 34, 41 

differentiated from carbohydrates, 34, 
41 



Hydrocele, sterility from, 293 

symptoms and treatment, 236 
Hydrocephalus, 265, 279 

chronic, causes, symptoms and treat- 
ment, 199 
pathology of, 155 
dystocia from, 279 

how overcome, 279 
Hydrogen, 13 

an element of proteids, 106 
compared with oxygen, 17 
dioxide, 15, 16 
sulphide, preparation of, 23 
Hydrops uteri, causes and treatment, 284 
amnii, 285 

causes, sjTnptoms and treatment, 
285 
Hydrothorax, causes and symptoms, 191 
lesions, 151 
operations for, 228 
treatment, 191, 228 
Hygiene, 345 

meat and milk, 351 
Hyperaemia, 141 
cerebral, 200 

differentiated from cerebral an- 
aemia, 200 
Hyperisotonic, 40 
Hyperpnoea, 114 
Hypertrophy, causes of, 143 
Hypnotic, 309, 320 
Hypoblast, function of, 273 
Hypoderma lineata, 203 
Hypoglossal nerve, anatomy, 76 

function of, 135 
Hypo-isotonic, 40 

Icterus, causes and symptoms, 193 

pathology of, 153 

relative gravity of, in dog and horse, 
193 
Ileum, anatomy, 82 
Illuminating gas, 22 
Immobihty, 199 

causes, symptoms and treatment, 199 
Immime body, 168 
Immunity, 141, 164, 341 

acquired, 164, 341 

active, 164 

natural, 164, 341 

passive, 164 

varieties of, 164 
Immunization, 341 

in infectious diseases, '341 
Imperforate anus, treatment of, 296 
Impregnation, artificial, 273 
Impregnator, use of, 273 
In-breeding, 361 
Incompatibihty, 6 

chemical, 6, 305 

pharmaceutical, 6, 305 

physical, 6 

physiological, 6, 305 

therapeutic, 6 



380 



INDEX 



Index, opsonic, how determined, 163 
Indigestion, acute gastric, 193 
causes, 193 
prescription for, 336 
symptoms, 193 
treatment, 193, 313 
surgical, 229 
Inertia, uterine, 283 

symptoms and treatment, 283 
Infection, defined, 141 

rise in temperature due to, 141 
Infectious abortion, causes of, 182 

anaemia, causes and characteristics of, 

182 
disease, 157, 165, 347 

agents in development of, 142 
disinfection in, 347 
Inferior maxilla, anatomy, 46 
Infiltration, fatty, 143 

differentiated from fatty degen- 
eration, 143 
Inflarmnation, cardinal symptoms of, 144 
causes of, 209 
classification of, 210 
defined, 144, 209 
process of, 144 
productive, 144 
symptoms and treatment, 209 
termination of, 210 
tissue changes in, 144 
use of cold and heat in, 210 
Influenza, causes of, 177 
cellulitic form, 175 
differentiated from contagious pleuro- 

pnemnonia, 170 
symptoms, 177 
treatment, 300 

modem forms of, 177 
Infusion, defined, 304 

saline, indications for, 332 

methods of administration, 332 
Inguinal canal, anatomy, 62 
Inhibition, defined, 133 
Inoculation, diagnostic, 171 
Insolation, 201 

differentiated from heat exhaustion, 

166 
symptoms, 201 
treatment, 201, 314 
Insufficiency of cardiac valves, 186 

causes and symptoms, 186 
treatment, 187 
Intestines, anatomy, 82 

length of, in horse, cow and dog, 

82 
small, 82 
Intussusception, defined, 194 
genera most liable to, 194 
prognosis and treatment, 194 
symptoms, 194, 231 
Invagination, genera most liable to, 194 
symptoms, 194, 231 
treatment, 194 
Invertase, 116, 119 



Iodine, 25 

compounds, actions and uses, 303 

dose for dog and horse, 317 

general actions of, 317 

preparation and uses of, 26 

test for, 25 

tincture, uses of, 304 
Iodoform, derivation of, 36 

in chronic metritis, 289 

uses of, 36, 304 
Ions, 2 
Ipecac, actions and uses of, 323 

an expectorant, 322 

dose for dog and horse, 323 
for cats and swine, 327 

in Dover's powder, 328 
Iridocyclochoroiditis, 156 
Iris, anatomy, 93 

function of, 136 

innervation of, 136 
Iron, 31 

carbonate, 32 

cast, 32 

chloride, 32, 302 
uses of, 317 

compounds of, 32 

occurrence in nature, 31 

ores of, 32 

phosphate of, 302 
uses of, 317 

preparation of, 309 

reduced, 32 

dose of, 309 

salts of, uses, 302 

sesquioxide of, 302 
uses of, 39, 338 

sulphate, 32, 302, 309 
preparation of, 32 
uses in medicine, 32, 317 

wrought, 32 
Ischaemia, defined, 147 
Ischial notch, vessels and nerves passing 

through, 260 
Ischium, 50 

fracture of tuberosity of, 238 

notch of, 260 
Isomerism, 5 
Isotonic, 40 

Jaborine, 328 
Jaundice, 109 

causes and symptoms of, 193 
pathology of, 153 

relative gravity of, in horse and dog, 
193 
Jejunum, anatomy, 82 
Johne's disease, 179 

cause, 179, 163 
genus subject to, 179 
prevention and symptoms, 179 
Joints, 51, 214 

classification of, 51 
false, 214 
fetlock, 55 



INDEX 



381 



Joints, hip-, horse and ox compared, 56 
open, treatment, 214 
pathology of, 147 
shoulder, 53 

muscles that flex, 58 
structures entering into, 52 

Karyokinesis, 102 
Keraphyllocele, 250 
Keraphyllous tissue, anatomy, 96 
Keratogenous membrane, anatomy, 96 

function of, 138 
Kidneys, anatomy, 89 

blood supply of, 89 

compared with liver, 104 

capsule of, 125 

circulation of blood in, 112 

cortical layer of, 125 

elimination by, 102 

function of, 125 

of horse and ox compared, 89 

secretion of luine by, 125 

structures of, 101, 125 
King system of ventilation, 346 

Labor, 278 

care of dam after, 283 
signs and stages of, 279 
Lachrymal apparatus, 94, 136 
bone and canal, 94 
fistula, treatment of, 219 
gland in the ox, 94 
of horse and ox compared, 94 
sac, 94 

secretion, function of, 137 
Lactase, 116, 119 
Lameness, hip, 245 

symptoms and treatment, 245 
varieties, 245 
shoulder, 239 

symptoms and treatment, 239 
stifle, 246 

symptoms and treatment, 246 
trochanteric, 245 
Laminae, sensitive, 96 

function of, 96, 139 
Laminitis, acute, causes, symptoms and 
treatment, 255 
pathology of, 156 
chronic, 255 

pathology of, 156 
puerperal, in mare, causes, symptoms 
and treatment, 293 
Lampas, defined, 210 
Lanolin, source, 124 
Laparotomy in the cow, 230 
indications for, 230 
Laryngitis, acute, 171 

differentiated from acute pharyn- 
gitis, 171 
Larynx, anatomy, 85 
cartilages of, 86 
epithelium of, 104 
motor nerve to, 135 

effect of division of, 135 



Larynx, nerve supply to, 77, 86, 135 

sensory nerve of, 135 
Lateral cartilages, anatomy, 95 

function of, 55, 138 
Laughing gas, 18 
Law, Avogadro's, 12 

of constant or definite proportions, 11 

of multiple proportions, 11 
Laxatives, 298, 316 
Lead, 28 

acetate of, 35 

antidote for, 39 

chamber process, 24 

poisoning, 169, 195, 339 
m cattle, 195, 339 

symptoms and treatment, 
195, 339 

sugar of, action, 28 
dose, uses, 319 
Leech, horse, 188 
Lens, crystalline, anatomy, 93 
Leptomeningitis, 155, 200 
Lesion, primary and secondary, 141 
Leucocjrtes, function, 107 
Leucocythsemia, defined, 146 
Leucocytosis, defined, 147 

diseases in which occurs, 147 

relation of, to phagocytosis, 147 
Leucorrhcea, 288 

symptoms and treatment of, 288 
Leukaemia, definition of, 147, 182 
Lice, 203 

Ligaments, broad, of fiver, 83, 84 
of uterus, 85, 91 

calcaneo-cuboid, 56 

iliosacral, 260 

of elbow- joint, 53 

of femorotibial articulation, 56 

of fetlock-joint, 55 

of hip- joint, 56 

of knee-joint, 54 

of liver, 83 

of pelvis, 260 

of radiocarpal joint, 54 

of shoulder- joint, 53 

of vertebral articulations, 52 

prepubic, rupture of, 231 

round, of liver, 84 
of uterus, 91 

sacrosciatic, 260 

suspensory, 55 
sprain of, 242 

utero-ovarian, 91 
Ligamentum nuchae, 53 

elastic fibrous tissue in, 101 
Light, 5 
Lightning, death by, 142 

lesions, 142 
Lignieres, coccobacillus of, 177 
Lime water, 30 
Linguatula taenoides, 192 

animals infested by, 192 
diagnosis and treatment, 192 
Linseed oil, actions and doses, 322 



382 



INDEX 



Liquid, metric unit ot, 306 
Liquor anmii, 272, 274 
functions, 272 

plumbi subacetatis, 310 

preparation and uses of, 310 

potassii arsenitis, 33 

sanguinis, 101 
Lithium, 29 

salts of, uses, 301 
Liver, anatomy, 83 

blood supply, 66, 84, 120 

compared with kidney, 104 

cirrhotic, appearance of, 152 

fluke, 198 

functions, 120 

ligaments of, 83, 85 

nerve supply, 84 

rot in sheepj see Distomiasis 
Lobelia, properties and uses of, 317 
Lochia, 289 

common in all animals, 289 

treatment, 289 
Loco poisoning, prevention, 199 

when and where enzootic, 199 
Lugol's solution, 303 
Lumbago, 171 

distinguished from acute nephritis, 
171 
Lunar bone, anatomy, 48 

caustic, preparation of, 27 
uses in medicine, 27 
Lungs, anatomy, 87 

blood supply, 66, 88, 

congestion of, 190 

elimination by, 103 

epithelium of, 104 

function, 114 

number of lobes in dog, horse, ox, 
pig, and sheep, 87 
Luxation, causes of, 215 

defined, 215 

patellar, 246 

symptoms and treatment of, 246 
Lymph, appearance, 122 

capillaries, 122 

described, 122 

forces assisting flow of, 123 

function of, 122 

involved in diseases of connective 
tissues, 123 

source, spaces, and vessels, 122 
Lymphagogues, 123 
Lymphangioma, 149 
Lymphangitis, acute, 169 

differentiated from farcy, 169 

causes, 217 

defined, 217 

epizootic, 158, 179 

prognosis and symptoms, 179 

infectious, 158, 179 

pathology of, 158 

symptoms and treatment, 217, 329 
Ljnnphatic glands, 70 
axiUary, 71 



Lymphatic glands, bronchial, 70 

ihac, 70 

inguinal, 71 

mesenteric, 71 

of the thorax, 70 

popliteal, 71 

posterior cervical, 70 
mediastinal, 70 

precrural, 71 

prescapular, 70 
Lymphatics, 69 
Lymphoid tissue, 70 
Lysins, 342 

Magnesium, 29 
carbonate, 30 

compounds used in medicine, 30 
sulphate, 30 

administration of, to cow, 317 
distinguished from zinc sulphate, 

31 
preparation of, 30 
Magnetite, 32 

Mammary duct, stenosis of, symptoms and 
treatment, 238 
gland, anatomy of, 91, 263 
fimction of, 266 
of the bitch, 92, 263 
of the cow, 91 
of the mare, 140 
Mammitis, see Mastitis 
Mange, demodectic, 203, 204 

symptoms and treatment, 204 
disposition of carcass, 354 
foUicular, 204 
hunger, 205 
prescription for, 333 
psoroptic, 203, 204 
sarcoptic, 203, 204 
symbiotic, 203 
treatment in dog, 324 
Malignant oedema, 174 

cause and course of, 174 
differentiated from anthrax, 166 
symptoms, 174 
pustule, 175 
Mallein, 162 

cutaneous test, 167 
intradermal test, 166 
ophthalmic test, 167 
test for glanders, 166, 167 

compared with agglutination, 167 
course to be pursued in, 167 
Malpighian corpuscles, anatomy, 97, 112 
Maltase, 116, 119 
Marsh gas, 22 
Marsh's test for arsenic, 33 
Massage, effect of, 319 
indication for, 319 
Mastitis, 238 

a sequel of cowpox, 173 
acute, in the cow, 291 

causes, symptom and treatment, 
291, 326 



INDEX 



383 



Mastitis, purulent, 238 

treatment, 238, 326 
Masturbation, cause of sterility, 293 (see 

Onanism) 
Materia medica, defined, 297 
Measly pork, 353 

method of detecting, 353 
Meat and milk, hygiene, 351 

inspection, municipal and State, 
354 
Mediastinum, anatomy, 88 
Medicine, classified, 331 

theory and practice of, 165 
Medicines, kinds according to general 
action, 316 
modes of administration of, 297 
comparison of, 297 
Medulla oblongata, anatomy, 72 

functions of, 133 
Meibomian glands, physiology, 136 
Melanosarcomata, 145 
animals found in, 145 
gross appearance of, 145 
Melanosis, cause of, 145 
Membrana tjonpani, anatomy, 95 
function, 95 
granulosa, 139 
Membrane, Descemet's, 94 
keratogenous, 96 
mucous, 100 
nictitans, 94, 136 
of Corti, 137 
of Reissner, 13'^ 
serous, 100 
tympanic, 95 
Meningitis, 155 

cerebral, symptoms of, 200 
cerebrospinal, symptoms of, 201 

hygienic measures in, 349 
spinal differentiated from azoturia, 169 
Menstruation, causes of, 265 

in bitch, cat, cow, and sow, 267 
not independent of ovaries, 265 
Mercuriahsm, antidote and symptoms, 339 
Mercuric chloride, 7, 28 
antidotes for, 39 
properties of , 28 
Mercurous chloride, 11, 28 

properties of, 28 
Mercury, 28 

compounds used in medicine, 28 
poisoning, antidote and symptoms, 

338 
preparations of, 299 
Mesoblast, function of, 273 
Metabohsm, 40, 126 
diseases of, 183 
of nutrition, 126 
Metacarpus, fracture of, 243 

symptoms and treatment, 243 
Metals, 5 

alkaline earth, 29 

beU, 12 

distinguished from non-metal, 9 



Metastasis, defined, 142 
Methaemoglobin, 109 
Methylene blue, uses, 325 
Metritis, 154 

sterihty from, 293 
Metrotomy, indications and operation of, 

286 
Micrococcus, 160 
Microorganisms, acid-fast, 162 

pus-producing, 161 
Microspira, 160 
Miliary tubercle, 159 
Milk, 41 

bacterial analysis of, 359 

bitter, 358 

blue, 358 

butter fat in, 42 

certified, 355, 359 

classification of, 357 

cow's, composition of, 41,140, 268,355 

dangers of infection in, 356 

diseases transmitted through, 356 

hygiene, 351 

inspected, 357 

mare's, compared with cow's, 268 

composition of, 140, 269 
pasteurized, 357, 359 
preservatives used in, 358 
pus in, 358 
red, 358 
ropy, 358 

sour, microorganisms causing, 359 
souring of, 42 
standards, 42 
sterilized, 359 

streptococci in, significance of, 359 
suppression of, 358 
test for boric acid, 357 
for formaldehyde, 358 
for pasteurization, 357 
for salicylic acid, 357 
for sodium bicarbonate, 357 
typhoid germs in, 356 
uterine, 139 
Mitosis, 102 

Mitral stenosis, changes following, 149 
Mixture, distinguished from compound, 9 
Molecular repulsion, 4 
Molecule, 3 

weight, 5 
Monad, 4 
Morphine, actions and uses, 307 

on dog and horse compared, 321 
defined, 307 

dose for dog and horse, 307 
poisoning by, symptoms and treat- 
ment, 340 
Morula, stage of, 268, 271 
Motor oculi nerve, 74 

functions, 134 
Mucous membrane, 100 

compared with serous, 100 
location, 100 
secreting gastric, 118 



384 



INDEX 



Mules compared with horses, 365 
Multiparous, 266 
Muscles, anconeus, 58 

anterior extensor of the metacarpus, 

58 
caput magnum, 58 

medium, 58 

parvum, 58 
cremaster, 92 
diaphragm, 61, 114 
expiratory, 114 
extensor pedis, 58 

suffraginis, 58 
external flexor of the metacarpus, 58 
flexor brachii, 58 
function of, 130 
gastrocnemius, 59 
gemelli, 59 
gluteal, 59 
heart, 130 

hmneralis obUquus, 58 
iliopsoas, 59 
inspiratory, 114 
internal flexor of the metacarpus, 58 

obturator, 59 
involuntary, 130 
kinds of, 130 
longissimus dorsi, 60 
longus colli, 61 
masseter, 57 
mastoidohumeralis, 57 
oblique extensor of the metacarpus, 
58 

flexor of the metacarpus, 58 
obturator extemus, 59 
of hogs, parasite in, 155 
of respiration, 62, 114 
of the eye, 57 
of the forearm, 58 
of the tail, 60 
pathology of, 155 
panniculus carnosus, 60 
pectineus, 59 
perforans, 58 
perforatus, 58 
pophteus, 59 
psoas, 59 

pterygoid extemus and intemus, 57 
quadratus femoris, 59 
sartorius, 59 
serratus magnus, 61 
small adductor of the thigh, 59 
striated, 100 
striped, 100 

and unstriped compared, 100 
subscapulohyoideus, 57 
' surgery of, 216 
temporal, 57 
tensor fascia lata, 59 
teres extemus and intemus, 58 
triceps, 58 
unstriped, 100 

vastus extemus and internus, 59 
voluntary, 100, 130 



Muscular contraction, 130 

chemical changes in, 130 
phases of, 130 
excitability, conditions enhancing, 131 
conditions impairing, 131 
Mustard, 319 

an emetic, 316 

dose for dog, 316 
as a blistering agent, 313 
Mydriatic, 309 
Myocarditis, 149 
Myology, 57 
Myoma, 146 
Myositis, causes, 216 
defined, 216 
symptoms, 216 
Myotic, 309 
Myotomy, caudal, object of, 239 

Nasal gleet, 169, 188 
causes of, 188 

differentiated from glanders, 169 
symptoms and treatment, 188 
Navicular sheath, anatomy, 62 
bone fracture of, 250 
disease of, 252 

symptoms and treatment, 
252 
Necrobacillosis, cause and forms of, 163 
Necrosis, 143 

bacillus of, 163 
caseation, occurrence, 143 
coagulation, 143 
liquefaction, 143 
Negative phase, 164 
Negri bodies, 158 
Nephritis, acute, 171 

casts found in, 153 
causes and treatment of, 185 
distinguished from lumbago, 171 
from lumbar rheumatism, 
171 
gross pathology, 154 
chronic interstitial, 185 
casts found in, 153 
gross pathology, 154 
Nerves, abducens, 75, 134 
afferent, 131 
auditory, 75, 135 137 
ciliary, 93 
cranial, 73-76 
described, 99 
digital, 76 
efferent, 131 
facial, 75, 134 

function of, in secretion, 104 
glossopharyngeal, 75, 135 
hypoglossal, 76, 135 
median, 76 
motor, effect of electric stimulation of, 

133 
motoroculi, 74, 134 
olfactory, 73, 134 
optic, 74, 93, 134 



INDEX 



385 



Nerves, patheticum, 74, 134 
phrenic, function of, 133 
plantar, 76 

pneumogastric, 75, 135 
radial and sciatic, 76 
sensory and motor compared, 132 
spinal, 73 

effect of division of both roots of, 
132 
of inferior roots of, 132 
functions of, 132 
number of, 73 
spinal accessory, 76, 135 
surgery of, 216 
trifacial, 74, 134 
vagus, 75, 135 
Nervous system, 71, 131 
cerebrospinal, 71 
development of, in the foetus, 275 
influence on secretion, 134 
pathology of, 155 
sympathetic, 77 

function of, 135 
Neurectomy, anterior tibial, 249 
high plantar, 244 

indications for, 245 
relation of artery, vein, 
nerve and tendon, 245 
median, indications for, 244 
structm-es severed in, 99 
posterior tibial, 250 
trifacial, technic of, 228 
unfavorable results in, 216 
Neurilemma, 100 
Neurology, 71 
Neuroma, 146 

Neurotomy^ unfavorable results in, 216 
Neutralization, 4 
New-bom, asphyxiated, 294 

cyanosis, causes and symptoms, 296 

treatment, 294 
diarrhoea in, 294 

causes and treatment, 294 
diseases of, infectious, 294 
non-infectious, 294 
Nitrate of potash, see Potassium 
Nitric acid, preparation and uses of, 19 
tonic, 318 
oxide, 11, 12 
Nitrogen, 18 

an element of proteids, 106 
compared with oxygen, 18 
function of, 18 
oxides of^ 18 
preparation of, 18 
Non-metal, 9 

Nutrition, metabolism of, 126 
Nux vomica, dose of fluidextract, 310 
uses, 810 

Obstetrics, 259 

Obstetrist, disadvantage of, 280 

veterinary, 280 
Ocular sheath, physiology, 136 
25 



Oculomotor nerve, 74 

function of, 134 
(Edema, 141, 144 

causes, 144 

differs from secretion, 104 

of the glottis, 188 

symptoms and treatment, 188 

of the lungs, cause, 149 
(Esophagotomy, 221 

in choke, 221 
(Esophagus, anatomy, 80 
(Estrus larvae, in throat of solipeds, 188 
Oils, castor, action and dose, 322 

croton, see Oroton oil 

essential, 34 

fixed, 34 

linseed, action and dose, 322 
Olein, 41 
Olfactory nerve, 73 

function of, 134 
Oligemia, defined, 182 
Oligocythaemia, definition of, 182 
Omasum, anatomy, 82 
Omphalophlebitis, 295 

causes, symptoms and treatment, 295 
Onanism, sterihty from, 293 

correction of, 293 
Oophorectomy, in the bitch, 237 

in the mare, accidents, 237 
Oophoritis, 154 
Open joint, treatment of, 214 
Opium, dose for cow, dog and horse, 301 

general actions, source and uses, 301 
Ophthalmia, periodic, 155 
pathology of, 155 
prognosis, 218 
symptoms and treatment, 218 

contagious, animals affected by, 219 
diagnosis and treatment, 219 
Opsonic index, 163 

how determined, 163 
Optic nerve, anatomy, 74, 93 

function of, 134 

thalami, anatomy, 72 
Orchitis, 141, 154 

causes, 236 

sterility from, 293 

symptoms and treatment, 236 
Organs, abdominal, pathology, 152 

eliminating, 102, 105 

genito-urinary, pathology, 153 

of secretion, 105 

respiratory, pathology, 150 

sense, 93 

vital, 105 
Orgasm, 266 
Os innominatum, 50 

coxa, 50 
Osmosis, 41 
Osteology, 44 
Osteomalacia, 169 

differentiated from osteoporosis, 169 

in pregnancy, 284, 292 
treatment, 292 



386 



INDEX 



Osteomyelitis, defined, 212 
Osteoporosis, 169 

course of , 184 

differentiated from osteomalacia, 169 

pathology of, 147 

symptoms and termination of, 183 

treatment of, 184 
Ostitis, defined, 212 
Otorrhoea of dog, treatment, 220 
Ovaries, anatomy, 90, 262 

changes in, after fecundation, 265 

conditions of, causing sterility, 294 

cystic, 293 

pathology of, 154 

during menstruation, 264 

extirpation of, in bitch, 236 
in mare, 237 

function of, 265 

of cow and mare compared, 90 

of mare, cow, sheep, goat, pig, bitch 
and cat compared, 263 

pitted in old age, 264 
Ovariotomy, in the bitch, 236 

in the mare, accidents, 237 
Oviducts, 264 

function of, 264, 265 
Ovum, impregnation of, 268 

journey of, 268 
Oxidation, 16, 17 

rapid and slow, 17 
Oxygen, 16 

an element of proteids, 106 

compared with hydrogen, 17 

compared with nitrogen, 18 

how carried in blood, 108 

preparation of, 16, 17 
Oxyhsemoglobin, 109 
Oxyuris curvula, 195, 196 

prescription for, 195 

mastigodes, 196 
Ozone, 17 

Pachymeningitis, 155, 200 
Palmitiu, 41 
Palpation, 171 
Pancreas, anatomy, 84 

blood and nerve supply of, 84 
fimctions of, 121 

relation of, to glucose in urine, 121 
relations of, 84 
secretion, 121 
Paper-skin disease, 189 
Patheticum nerve, 74 

function of, 134 
Paralysis, facial, 224, 258 

food conditions causing, 155 
of the bladder in horse and dog, 
233 
causes, symptoms and treatment, 
233 
of the lips, causes, symptoms and 

treatment,^224 
of the masticatory muscles, symp- 
toms and treatment, 226 



Paralysis of the penis, causes, symptoms 
and treatment, 235 
originating in brain, cord and periph- 
ery, differentiated, 216 
radial, symptoms and treatment, 241 
suprascapular, cause, symptoms and 
treatment, 240 
Paraphimosis, symptoms and treatment, 

235 
Parasites, affecting gullet of cattle, 192 
in intestines of the horse, 195 

of the dog, symptoms, 197 
in muscles of hogs, 155 
in the throat of solipeds, 188 

prevention, symptoms and treat- 
ment, 188 
of sheep, 364 
of the skin, 203 
Paris green, 33 

antidote for, 39, 338 
Parturient, apoplexy, 287 

Schmidt treatment of, 287 
eclampsia, 287 

and parturient paresis differ- 
entiated, 287 
in the mare, 287 

causes and treatment of, 287 
paresis, 287 
Parturition, 279 

diseases following, in cow, 284 
fetal conditions interfering with, 279 
sign and stages of, 279 
Patella, displacement of, symptoms and 

treatment, 246 
Pathogenic, defined, 161 
Pathology, defined, 141 

special, 141 
Pearson's solution, 308 

dose, preparation and uses, 308 
Pedal bone, anatomy, 48 

connection of hoof wall with, 96 
Pedigree, 362 

depends upon, 362 
value of, 362 
Pelvis, articulations of, 260 
bones of, 50 

centres of ossification in, 259 
defined, 259 

diameters of, in cow, 260 
diseases of, 238 
fracture of, 238, 239 
function of, 259 
Hgaments of, 260 
of horse and ox compared, 50 
of mare, cow, sheep, goat, bitch and 

cat compared, 259 
of sheep and cow compared, 260 
Penetrating street nail, treatment, 256 
Penis, amputation of, 235 

paralysis of, cause, symptoms and 
treatment, 235 
Pentad, 4 
Pepsin, 116, 118, 119 

preparation and properties of, 315 



INDEX 



387 



Percentage composition, determination of, 

11 
Periarthritis, defined, 148, 2" 
Pericarditis, acute, 149 

chronic, lesions, 149 

in bovines, causes, prevention, symp- 
toms arid treatment, 186 
Perimysixmi, 100 
Periodic ophthakoia, 155 

pathologic changes in, 155 
prognosis and symptoms, 218 
treatment, 218, 312 
Periostitis, aseptic, 213 

causes, symptoms and treatment, 
213 

defined, 148, 212 
Peristalsis, 119 

remedies promoting, 314 
Peritoneum, anatomy, 84 

part of spermatic cord, 92 
Peritonitis, 198 

causes, 198, 232 

pathology of, 152 

pulse in, 165 

symptoms and treatment, 198 
Perspiration, 124 

effect of suppression, 124 
Petroleum, uses, 37 
Peyer's patches, 70 

in catarrhal enteritis, 152 
Phagocytes, 146 
Phagocytosis, 104, 146 

method of stimulating, 147 

relation of leucocytosis to, 147 
Phaiyngitis, acute, differentiated from 

acute laryngitis, 171 
Pharynx, anatomy, 80 
Phase, negative and positive, 164 
Phenacetin, 310, 317 
Phenol, source, 37 

antidote, 40 
Phlebitis, causes, and defined, 217 
Phlebotomy, indications for, 228 (see Vene- 
section) 
Phlegmon, 209 
Phosphine, 11 
Phosphoric acid, 11 
Phosphorus, 25 

allotropic forms of, 25 

antidotes for, 39 

occurrence, 25 

physical properties, 25 

source and uses of, 25 
Phragmidothrix, 160 
Phrenitis, 155, 200 
Physical change, 2 
Physics, 1 

distinguished from chemistry, 1 
Physiologic action of a drug, 298 

salt solution, 40 
Physiology, 102 

a study of the properties of cells, 102 

deficriition, 102 

obstetrical, 264 



Physostigmine, 319 
Pia mater, anatomy, 71 
physiology, 133 
Pilocarpine, action of, 317 

source of, 312, 328 
Pilocarpus, actions, 328 

active principles of, 328 
composition, 328 
dose and uses, 328 
Pineal bodies, vascular glands, 112 
Pisiform bone, anatomy, 48 
Pituitary gland, anatomy, 97 
vascular gland, 112 
Placenta, 139 

cotyledonary, 139, 271 
development of, 271 
diffuse, 139, 271 
function of, 139, 271 
retained, 291 

prescription for, 291 
zonary, 139, 271 
Planococcus, 160 
Planosarcina, 160 
Plasma, 101 
Plaster of Paris, 30 
Pleura, anatomy, 88 
Pleurisy, 190 

of the dog, 191 
lesions, 151 
pulse in, 165 

symptoms and treatment, 190 
Plemitis, acute diffused, 190 
lesions, 151 

sjnnptoms and treatment, 
190 
Plexus, brachial, anatomy, 76 
cardiac, 136 
lumbosacral, 76 
mesenteric, 136 
pelvic, 91 
solar, 136 
Plumbi acetate, 28 

actions, dose and uses, 319 
Plumbism, see Lead poisoning 
Pluriparous, 266 

Pneumogastric nerve, anatomy, 75 
function of, 135 
influence on heart, 109 
Pneumonia, broncho-, appearance of limga 
in, 151 
gangrenous, 190 

post-mortem appearance, 150 
symptoms of, 190 
inhalation, 188 

causes of, 188, 258 
prevention, 189 . 
symptoms and treatment, 189 
medicinal treatment of, 300 
post-mortem appearance, 150 
symptoms of, 190 
Podophyllum, actions and uses, 328 
dose, 317, 328 
general action, 317 
source, 317 



388 



INDEX 



Poisoning, ergot, in cattle, 198 
lead, 169, 195 

differentiated from forage poison- 
ing, 169 
loco, 199 
ursemic, 185 
Poisons, 38 

irritant, 38 
neurotic, 38 
metallic, 39 
Poll-evil, operation for, 227 
Polycythaemia, defined, 146 
Polypi, nasal, 223 

symptoms, 223 
treatment, 223 
pharyngeal, treatment, 221 
Polyuria, causes and treatment, 185 
Portal circulation, 112 
vein, 69 

relation to absorption, 120 
Position, cephalosacral, 281 
obstetrics, 278 
right cephalo-ilial, 281 
sterno-abdominal, 281 
varieties, 279 
Positive phase, 164 
Post-zygopophyses, 52 
Potassium, 300 
acetate, 35 

dose, 318 
alum, 31 

bicarbonate of, 29 
bromide, 300 
chlorate of, 11, 29, 301 

dose and properties of, 311 
uses, 301, 311 
citrate, dose, 318 
hydroxide, 29, 301 
iodide, preparation of, 26 
dose of, 314 
uses, 301, 304 
nitrate, 7, 11, 29, 300 
action, 319, 330 
dose, 318, 330 
source, 330 
uses, 319, 330 
permanganate, 11, 326 

action and uses, 326 
sodium tartrate, 7 
Precipitation, 14 
Prefixes, chemical, 8 
Pregnancy, 269 

care and food of animals during, 

269 
changes in blood, 274 
diseases incidental to, 284 
dm-ation of, in bitch, cow, ewe, mare 

and sow, 268 
effects of indigestion, 270 
extra-uterine, varieties of, 270 
multiple, position of foetus in, 272 
position of neighboring organs during, 

273 
signs of, 270 



Prehension, organs of, 77, 80 

in horses, cattle and sheep compared, 
116 
Premature birth, 276 
Prepotency, 361 
Prescription for actinomycosis, 336 

for acute indigestion, 336 

for bKster, 335 

for bowed tendons, 216 

for cathartic, sheep, 335 

for chronic constipation, dog, 337 

for chronic cough, 332, 337 

for chronic eczema, dog, 335 

for cocaine, 333 

for cough powder, 334 

for diarrhoea in calves, 333 

for fever in horse, 333 

for flatulent colic, 337 

for intestinal worms, 195 

for liniment, 336 

for mange, 333 

for purgative, 332, 334 

for ringworm, 337 

for round worms in dog, 333 

for scratches, 336 

for spasmodic colic, 334 

for tonic for horse, cow and dog, 334, 
335 
Presentation, 278 

anterior, 281, 282 

most difficult, 278 

most favorable and frequent, 278 

normal, 278 

posterior, 281 

varieties, 278 
Prezygopophyses, 52 
Primiparous, 266 
Process, basilar, 48 

condyloid, 46 

coronoid, 46 

retrossal, 48 

spinous, 49, 51 
Prognosis, 165 
Prolapse, defined, 212 
Prophylaxis, 349 
Prostate gland, 92 

diseases of, symptoms and treat- 
ment, 236 
Protargol, 27 

uses, 330 
Proteids, elements composing, 106 

ferments acting on, 116 

important food, 127 
Protein, 360 

Proximate principles, 346 
Pseudomonas, 160 
Psoroptes communis, 203 
Ptomaines, 39 
Ptyalin, 116 
Ptyalism, causes, 226 

accidental, 226 

disease, 226 
Puberty, 364 

in various domestic animals, 364 



INDEX 



389 



Puerperal laminitis in mare, cause, symp- 
toms and treatment, 293 
septicaemia, causes, symptoms and 
treatment, 291 
Pulmonary congestion, 190 
causes, 149, 190 
lesions, 150 

symptoms and treatment, 190 
emphysema, 191 
lesions, 150 
treatment, 191 
oedema, causes of, 149 
Pulse, compressible, 165 
dicrotic, 165 
fast, 165 
hard, 165 

normal, in horse, ox, dog, sheep and 
cat, 112 
Pupil, anatomy, 93 

drugs contracting and dilating, 319 
Purgatives, 298, 316 

cholagogue, 298, 316 
drastic, 298, 316 
hydragogue, 298 
saline, 316 
simple, 298 
Purpura haemorrhagica, causes of, 177 
prognosis of, 178 
symptoms of, 177 
treatment of, 178, 320 
Pus, microorganisms producing, 161 
in guttural pouch, 86 

diagnosis and symptoms, 220 
in nasal sinuses, treatment of, 223 
Putrefaction, 34 
Py£enua, 209 

differentiated from septicaemia, 170 
treatment for, 170 
Pyelitis, diagnosis and treatment, 184 
Pyoktanin, uses, 325 

Quassia, actions, dose and use, 322 
Quinine sulphate, action, 306 

dose for cow, dog and horse, 306, 307 

uses, 306 
Quittor, 251 

Bayer's operation for, 252 

symptoms and treatment, 251 

Rabies, 176 

course and symptoms of, 176 

diagnosis of, 171 

dumb, 176 

furious, 176 

immunization in, 341 

lesions of, 157 

period of incubation, 178 

precautions taken in bitten animals, 
209 

sanitary police measures, 351 
Rachitis, cause, 184 

in pregnancy, treatment, 292 

symptoms, 184 

treatment, 184, 320 



Radial paralysis, 241 

symptoms and treatment, 241 
Radium, 29 
Rations, 127, 360 

balanced, 127, 360 

nature and value of, 127 

for a dairy cow, 127, 361 

for a horse, 127, 360, 361 

for swine, 361 
Receptaculum chyli, 70 
Reduction, 5 
Reflex, action defined, 104, 132 

experiment illustrating, 132 

movements, 134 
Reil, island of, 72 
Reissner, membrane of, 137 
Rennin, 116, 118, 121 
RepeUer, indications for use, 280 
Repulsion, molecular, 4 

of a diseased upper molar, 226 
Resection, perforans tendon, indications 

for, 256 
Residual air, 114 

Resorcin, actions, dose and uses, 330 
Respiration, Cheyne-Stokes type of, 166 

functions of, 113 

muscles of, 62 

normal number, 114 

relation to pulse-beats, 114 
Respiratory organs, anatomy, 85 

pathology, 150 
Restraint, methods of, 257 

in recumbent position, 257 
in standing position, 257 
Reticulum, anatomy, 82 
Retina, anatomy, 93 

Rheumatism, articular, causes, symptoms 
and treatment, 201 

muscular, causes, symptoms and treat- 
ment, 201 
Rhinitis, chronic, causes of, 188 

differentiated from glanders, 169 

symptoms and treatment, 188 
Rhino-adenitis, see Strangles 
Ribs, anatomy, 51 

asternal, 51 

fracture of, 229 

symptoms and treatment, 229 

sternal, 51 
Rigor mortis, 131 

changes in muscle in, 131 
Ringbone, defined, 243 

forms of, 243, 251 

symiptoms of, 243 

treatment, 243, 251 
Ringworm, cause, 203, 164 

prescription for, 337 

symptoms and treatment, 202 
Roaring, changes in nervous and muscular 
tissue in, 151 

operation for, 222 

S5Tiiptoms of, 222 
Rochelle salts, 7 
Rotation, obstetrics, 278 



390 



INDEX 



Rubidium, 29 

Rumen, anatomy, 81 

Rumenotomy, in cow, 230 

Rumination, physiology of, 117 

Rupture of the bladder, causes, symptoms 
and treatment, 233 
of the diaphragm, symptoms, 229 
of the flexor metatarsi, 247 
of the hgamentum teres, 245 
of prepubian ligament, 231 
of tendons, 215 

Sacrum, anatomy, 50 
Saddle-galls, treatment for, 229 
Salicyhc acid, preparations of, 327 

actions and uses, 327 
Saline infusion, 332 

- . indications, 332 

methods of administration, 332 
Saliva, action in stomach, 119 
amount in horse and ox, 117 
properties and uses of, 116 
Salivary calcuh, treatment of, 227 

fistula, causes, symptoms and treat- 
ment, 227 
glands, 80 

nerve supply of, 77 
ducts of, 80 
Salol, 37 

actions and uses, 327 
Salt, 3 

acid, 4, 12 

basic, 12 

physiologic solution of, 40 

use of, 332 
effect of, on growth of wool, 125 
Saltpetre, 7 

Salvarsan, used in contagious pleuro- 
pneumonia, 176 
in dourine, 182 
Sanitary, bam, farm, and milk-house, 
358 
science, used by veterinarian, 345 
Santonin, dose, 325 
Saphrophjrtic, defined, 161 
Sarcina, 160 
Sarcolemma, 100 
Sarcoma, tissue resembling, 145 

types of, 145 
Sarcoptes scabei, 203, 204 
Saturnism, see Lead poisoning 
Scabies, 204 

in sheep, 204 
Scaphoid bone, anatomy, 48 
Scapula, anatomy, 47 
Scirrhous cord, causes, symptoms and 

treatment, 234 
Sclerostoma equinima, 196 

tetracanthiun, 196 
Sclerostomata in bowels of horse, 195 

symptoms, 195 
Scratches, prescription for, 336 
Scrotum, anatomy, 92 
Sebaceous glands, 124 



Sebum, functions of, 124 

where and how secreted, 124 
Secretion, defined, 104 

differs from exudation, 104 
from cBdema, 104 
from transudation, 104 
function of blood in, 104 
function of gland cells in, 104 
function of nerves in, 104, 134 
influenced by nervous system, 134 
lachrymal, function of, 137 
organs of, 105 
Sedatives, action of, 298 

danger of excessive use, 298 
Seedy toe, 253 

defined, 253 
treatment, 253 
Selection for breeding, 362 
points considered, 362 
Sense organs, anatomy, 93 

physiology, 136 
Senses, physiology, 136 
Septicaemia, 209 

differentiated from pyaemia, 170 
puerperal, 291 
causes, 291 

symptoms and treatment, 291 
treatment for, 170 
Serous membrane, 100 

compared with mucous, 100 
location, 100 
Serum albumin, 101, 107 
bactericidal, 163 
bacteriolytic, 163 
danger in transfer, 108 
globuhn, 101, 107 
prophylactic, 350 
therapy, 341 

of hog cholera, 342 
Sexual organs, anatomy, 90 
Sheep, parasites of, 364 
wool breeds of, 361 
Shoe-boil, etiology, 240 

treatment of, 240, 241 
Shoeing, in bruised heel, 257 
in canker, 254 
in contracted tendons, 256 
in contracted hoof, 256 
in corns, 253 
in laminitis, 255 
in navicular disease, 252 
in quarter crack, 256 
in thrush, 254 
physiologic, 139 
to overcome forging, 256 
Shoulder abscess, cold, 240 

cause and treatment, 240 
joint, 53 

dislocation of, 239 
lameness, 239 

symptoms and treatment, 239 
Side-bones, pathology, 251 

treatment, 251 
Siderite, 32 



INDEX 



391 



Silver, 27 

compounds used in medicine, 27 
German, 12 
nitrate, 11, 18 
test for, 27 
Sinapis alba semina, 319 

nigra semina, 319 
Sinuses, 51 

facial, trephining of, 223 

frontal, of horse and ox compared, 

85 
galactophorus, 92 
maxillary, 45 

point to trephine, 99 
nasal, pus in, treatment, 223 
of the head, 85 
Skin, appendages of, 95 
diseases of, 202 
elimination by, 102 
function of, 123 
glands found in, 123 
parasites of, 203 
pathology of, 156 
Soap, preparation of, 41 
Sodium acetate, 35 
arsenate, 33 

bicarbonate, 11, 29, 300 
action, 331 
dose and uses, 331 
borate, 31 
bromide, 300 
carbonate, 7, 29 

preparation of, 29 
chloride, 29, 300 
an emetic, 316 
dose for dog, 316 
citrate, a lymphagogue, 123 
hydrate, 42 
hydroxide, 29, 301 
hyposulphite, 300, 313 
iodide, 303 

dose, 314 
nitrate, 18 
phosphate, 29 
salts, 29 

sulphate, 7, 29, 300 
Solder, 12 
Sole, pumiced, cause, 253 

prognosis and treatment, 253 
Solution, 8 

difference from emulsion, 8 
Fehling's, use of, 43 
Fowler's, composition, 308 

dose for dog and horse, 308 
uses, 308 
Pearson's, 308 

dose, preparation and use, 308 
Solvay process, 29 
Soundness, certificate for, 172 

mode of examining for, 172 
Spasm of diaphragm, and treatment, 
307 
of muscles of hind leg, and treatment, 
202 



Spavin, blood, 248 
bog, 248, 362 

forms of, and treatment, 248 
lesions of, 148 
unsoundness, 362 
Specific gravity, determination of, 1 

of urine, 43 
Spermatic artery, 92 

cord, structures of, 92 
vein, 92 
Spermatozoa not always in semen, 266 
Spider in teat, 238 

symptoms and treatment, 238 
Spinal accessory nerve, 76 

function of, 135 
Spinal column, diseases of, 238 
cord, anatomy, 72 
functions of, 131 
inferior columns of, 132 

fimction of, compared with 
superior colimon, 132 
reflex functions of, 132 
superior columns of, 132 
Spinal meningitis, 169 

differentiated from azoturia, 169 
Spine, acromian, 47 

supermaxillary, 45 
Spirillaceae, 160 
Spirillum, 160 

Spirits, ammonia aromaticus, action and 
dose, 326 
definition, 305 

difference from tinctures, 305 
glonoin, action and dose, 326 
nitrous ether, dose, 318 
Spirochseta, 160 
Spirosoma, 160 
Spleen, a ductless gland, 96 
anatomy, 97 
a vascular gland, 113 
blood supply of, 66, 97 
diseases in which enlarged, 153 
engorgement of, 97 
function of, 113 
nerve supply of, 77, 97 
of horse and ox compared, 97 
Splint, etiology of, 242 

symptoms and treatment, 243 
Spore, 160 
Sporotrichosis, 179 
Stable, objectionable locations for, 345 

proper drainage for, 345 
Staggers, stomach, see Vertigo 
Stall, properly bmlt for horse, 364 
Stannous chloride, 11 
Staphylococcus pyogenes albus, 161 
aureus, 161 
citreous, 161 
Staphyloma, defiined, 218 
Starch, ferments acting on, 116 
Starvation, 126 

effect on tissue, 128 
on urine, 126 
Steapsin, 116, 121 



392 



INDEX 



Stearin, 41 

Stenosis, mammary duct, symptoms and 
treatment, 238 

mitral, changes following, 149 
Sterile, defined, 161 
Sterility, causes and treatment, 293 
in female and in male, 293 

defined, 293 
Sterilization of hands and instruments, 

method of, 258 
Sternum, anatomy, 49 

of horse, ox and dog compared, 49 
Stimulants, cardiac, 305 

cerebral, 305 

definition of, 305 

diffusible, 305 

general, 305, 314 

hepatic, 305 
Stomach, anatomy, 81 

blood supply of, 66, 81 

epithehum of, 104 

function of, 117 

nerve supply of, 77, 81 

number of, in horse, ox, goat and 
camel, 118 

ruptured, symptoms of, 192 

staggers, see Vertigo 

tube, indications for use, 232 
method of passing, 232 
Stomatitis, causes and treatment, 225 
Strangles, complications occurring in, 178 

differentiated from glanders, 169 

symptoms of, 178 
Streptococcus pyogenes, 161 
Streptothrix, 160 
Stringhalt, operation for, 248 
Strongylosis, bronchial, 189 

symptoms, 189 
Strongylus equinum, 196 

rufescens, 189 

disease produced by, 189 
symptoms, 189 

tetracanthum, 196 
Strontium, 29 
Strophanthus, action and dose, 326, 328 

uses, 328 
Strychnine, actions and uses, 310 

antidote, 39, 340 

dose for dog and horse, 310 

poisoning in dog, and treatment, 340 
Succus entericus, 119 
Suffixes, 7 
Suffraginis, fractiure of, symptoms and 

treatment, 243 
Sulphur, 23 

an element of proteids, 106 

effect of ingestion of, on wool growth, 
125 

in disinfecting, 23 

properties and uses of, 23 
Sunstroke, differentiated from exhaustion, 
166 

symptoms of, 201 

treatment, 201, 314 



Superior maxilla, anatomy, 45 
Suppuration, 208 

susceptibility of different animals, 208 
Suprascapular paralysis, cause, symptoms, 

and treatment, 240 
Surgery, 206 
Surra, causes of, 163 
Suspensory ligament, anatomy, 55 

sprain of, causes, prognosis, 
symptoms and treatment, 242 
Suture, continuous, uses of, 207 
Swamp fever, causes and characteristics of, 

182 
Sweat-glands, 123, 124 

in different genera, 123 
Sweeney, defined, 216, 240 

treatment, 216, 240 
Swine plague, 172 

prophylactic measures in extinc- 
tion of, 173 
symptoms, 172 
Sylvius, fissure of, 72 
Symbiotes communis, 203 
Sympathetic nervous system, 77 

functions of, 135 
Synarthrosis, 52 
Syncope in anaesthesia, 258 
Sjnaechia, 156 

Synergistic remedial agents, 297 
Synovitis, 214 
Synthesis, 3, 6 
Systole, 109 

Taenia coenuris, 200 
mamillana, 195 
perfohata, 195 
plicata, 195 
solium, 353 
Tapeworm in dog, treatment, 323 

in soHpeds, 195 
Tar, actions of, 318 

coal, products of, 317 
source and uses, 318 
Tarsus, conditions causing unsoundness, 

362 
Tartar emetic, 34, 325 
actions, 325 
dose, 316, 325, 327 
vermifuge, 316 
Taste, nerves of, 134, 135, 137 

primary sensations of, 137 
Teeth, anatomy, 78 

at various ages, 79, 225 
canine, 78 
composition of, 78 
incisor, 77, 78 

horse and ox compared, 78 
modifications in upper and lower 

molars, 79 
molar, 78 

repulsion of diseased upper, 226 
Temperature, body, 128 

average normal, for different genera, 
128 



INDEX 



393 



Temperature, causes of the variation in, 129 
in cold-blooded animals, 128 
in warm-blooded animals, 128 
factors in regulation of, 129 
result of severe exercise on, 129 
rise in, due to infection, 141 

due to nervous disorders, 141 
due to poison, 141 
subnormal, diseases with, 171 
of a germ, maximum, minimmn, opti- 
mum, 164 
Tendinitis, causes of, 215, 242 
symptoms, 242 
treatment, 215, 241, 242 
Tendons, bowed, prescription for, 216 
flexor, contraction of, treatment, 241 
inflammation of, causes, symp- 
toms and treatment, 242 
metatarsi, ruptiu-e of, 247 
rupture of, causes of, 215 
surgery, 215 
Tendovaginitis, causes, symptoms and 

treatment, 215 
Tenotomy, cunean, object of, 247 

peroneal, object of, 248 
Termination, defined, 165 
Testicles, anatomy, coverings of, 92 

function of, 139 
Test, agglutination, 166, 167 

complement-fixation, 166, 167 
for preservatives in milk, 357 
mallein, 166, 167 
Marsh's, for arsenic, 33 
precipitin, 166 
Tetanus, accessory cause, 174 
bacillus of, 162 
cause and prevention, 174 
genera most subject to, 174 
immunization in, 341 
symptoms and treatment, 174, 300 
Tetrad, 4 
Texas fever, causes, 176 

post-mortem lesions, 158 
symptoms, 176 
Therapeutics, defined, 297 
Thermic fever, symptoms and treatment 
of, 201 
differentiated from heat exhaus- 
tion, 166 
Thermometric equivalents, 2 
Thiothrix, 160 

Thirst, cause of sensation of, 119 
Thoracic duct, 69, 123 

receptaculum chyli of, 70 
Thorax, anatomy, 87 

diameters enlarged in inspiration, 113 
diseases of, 228 
of horse and ox compared, 87 
organs contained in, 87 
Thoroughbred, 361 
Thorough-pin causes unsoimdness, 362 

pathology of, 249 
Throat, diseases of, 217 
Thrombin, 108 



Thrush, causes, prognosis, symptoms and 
treatment, 254 

differentiated from canker, 254 
Thumps, treatment for, 307 
Thymus gland, 97, 98 

a vascular gland, 112 
Thyroid gland, 97 

a vascular gland, 113 
function, 113 
Ticks, 203 
Tidal air, 103, 114 
Tincture, definition of, 305 

difference from spirits, 305 

oflacial, 306 

preparation of, 305 
Tinea tonsurans, disease produced by, 164 
Tissue, collecting for bacteriologic exam- 
ination, 163 

connective, 101 

elastic fibrous, where found, 101 

keraphyllous, 96 
Tongue, anatomy, 77, 79 
Tonic, 321 

acid, 318 

blood and nerve, 314 
Topographical anatomy, 98 
Torsion, arresting hemorrhage by, 208 

of uterus, symptoms and treatment, 
283 
Toxicology, 38, 338 
Toxin, 163 

Trachea, anatomy, 86 
Tracheotomy, indications for, 224 

in oedema of glottis, 188 

structures severed in, 98 
Transudation differs from secretion, 104 
Trapezoid bond, anatomy, 48 
Triad, 4 

Trichina spiralis, 155, 202, 354 
Trichinosis, 202, 354 

animals affected by, 202 

channels of infection, 202 

diagnosis and prevention, 202 

disposition of carcass, 354 

lesions, 155 

methods of detection, 354 
Trifacial nerve, 74 

function of, 134 
Trochanter, 51 
Trochanteric lameness, 245 
Trochlea, 51 

Trypanosoma Evansi, 163 
Trypsin, 116, 121 

Turpentine, oil of, administration of, 311 
dose, 325 

source and use, 311 
Tube, Eustachian, anatomy, 95 
epithelium of, 101 
function of, 96, 137 

stomach-, mdications for, 232 
methods of pasang, 232 
Tubercle, crude and miliary, 159 
Tubercula nates, 72 

testes, 72 



394 



INDEX 



Tuberculin, 162 

testing with, 170 

sources of fallacy in, 170 
Tuberculosis, 181 

bacillus of, 162 

Bang method of eradicating, 350 

channels of infection, 162 

course of, 181 

generalized, 352 

handling of infected herds, 348 

localized, 352 

rules for inspection of carcass, 351 

symptoms of, 181 

tissues most commonly affected, 159 
Tuberosity, 51 
Tumors, classification of, 145, 211 

defined, 211 

malignant and non-malignant, 145, 211 
Tunica adventitia, 99 

intima and media, 99 

vaginalis, anatomy, 92 
Tympanites accompanying choke, 222 

in cattle, 192 

ante-mortem and post-mortem, 

153 
symptoms and treatment, 192 

Udder, anatomy, 91 
of the cow, 91 

diseases affecting, 154 
Ulcer, causes and treatment, 211 

defined, 144, 210 
Ulna, anatomy, 47 
fractiu-e of, 241 

prognosis, symptoms and treat- 
ment, 241 
UmbiHcal cord, function, 271 

inflammation of, causes, symp- 
toms and treatment, 295 
hernia, causes, symptoms and treat- 
ment, 295 
infection, causes, 294 
Unciform bone, anatomy, 48 
Uncinaria, 197 

animals attacked by, 197 
symptoms and treatment, 197 
Unguentum hydragyri, 299 

actions, doses and uses, 299 
Uniparous, 266 
Unit, antitoxin, 343 

of measure of liquids, 306 
of weight, 306 
Unsoundness, conditions of tarsus causing, 
362 
diseases causing, 363 
faulty conformation predisposing to, 

363 
in horses disqualifying, 363 
Urachus, 275 

persistence of, 296 

symptoms and treatment, 296 
Uraemia, symptoms and treatment, 185 
Urea, 43, 127 

sources of, 126 



Ureter, anatomy, 89 
Urethra, anatomy, 90 

of horse and ox compared, 90 
of mare, 90 
Uric acid, 127 
Urinary organs, 89 

fetal development of, 276 
Urine, 42, 125 

acidity of, causes, 126 
albumin in, 186 
test for, 42 
average amount of, in horse and cow, 

126 
bile in, test for, 42 
blood in, 186 
composition of, 125 
examination of, steps in, 185 
of herbivora and carnivora compared, 

126 
reaction of, 126 
specific gravity of, 43, 126 
sugar in, test for, 42 
Urticaria, causes, symptoms and treat- 
ment, 203 
Uterine inertia in mare, 283 

symptoms and treatment, 283 
Uterus, amputation of, 286 
anatomy, 90, 261 
blood supply of, 66, 262 
cervix of, 279 
lacerations of, 289 

methods of dilating, 279 
function of, 266 
glands of, functions of, 262 
inversion of, 238, 286 

causes and symptoms, 286 
treatment, 238, 286 
ligaments of, 91 

functions of, 262 
modifications after labor, 266 

during pregnancy, 269 
muscular contractions of, 280 

methods of overcoming, 280 
nerve supply of, 77 
of bitch, 262 

of cow and bitch compared, 90 
pregnant, influence on neighboring 
^ organs, 267 

situation of, in mare and cow, 
275 
rigidity of the os, treatment, 284 
rupture of, dm-ing labor, 289 
torsion of, symptoms and treatment, 
283 

Vaccine, autogenous, 344 
prophylactic, 350 
therapy, 343 
Vagina, anatomy, 91 
function of, 91, 266 
inversion of, antepartum, 285 

causes, prognosis and treatment, 
285 
strictly a generative organ, 266 



INDEX 



395 



Vaginismus, 290 
Vaginitis, causes, 290 

contagious, symptoms and treatment 

of, 290 
defined, 290 

symptoms and treatment of, 290 
Vagus nerve, anatomy, 75 
function of, 135 
influence on heart, 109 
Valence, 4 
Valves, heart, 62 
ileocsecal, 83 
of veins, 110 
Valvular insufficiency, causes and symp- 
toms, 186 
treatment, 187 
Vascular glands, 112 
Vas deferens, definition of, 92 
Vaseline, source of, 37 
Vaso-vasorum, 99 
Vegetables, green, 127 
Veins, anterior cava, 68 
described, 99 
dorsal, 68 
function of, 110 
internal thoracic, 68 
jugular, 69 
portal, 69, 120 
pulmonary, 68 
spermatic, 92 
superior cervical, 68 
valves of, 110 
vena azygos, 68 
vertebral, 68 
Venesection, 323 
Ventilation, King system of, 346 
relation of air space to, 346 
Veratriun viride, actions, 306 

dose for dog and horse, 306 
uses, 306 
Vermifuge for cow, dog and horse, 316 
Version, obstetrics, 278 
Vertebrae, anatomy, 48 
cervical, 48 

common characteristics of, 49 
true, 49 
Vertigo, abdominal, 199 

causes, prevention, symptoms 
and treatment, 199 
Vesicovaginocele, causes, 292 

reduction of, 292 
Vesiculse seminales, 92 

absent in dog and cat, 264 
function of, 263 
Viborg method of opening guttural pouch, 
220 
triangle, 220, 221 
Viburnum prunifoHum, uses of, 313 
Vieussens, ring of, 68 
Vinegar, 35 

Vitreous humor, 93, 94 
Vitriol, blue, 7 
Voluntary movements, 134 
muscle, 100, 130 



Vomition in cattle, diagnosis, 192 

differentiated from regurgitation, 
192 
rare in the horse, reason, 117 
Vulva, anatomy, 93 
function of, 266 
mucous membrane of, 261 

epithelium of, 261 
structure of, 261 

Washing soda, 7^ 

Water, composition of, 14 

decomposed, 14 

hard, tests for, 15 

lime, 30 

purifying, 14, 345 

soft, 15 

tests for chlorides in, 14 
for lead in, 14 
for nitrates in, 14 
Weight, atomic, 5 

metric system of, 306 

molecular, 5 

of animal, supported by hoof, 96, 
139 

unit of, 306 
Whartonian gelatin, 272 
Whey, 42 
White scours in calves, 178 

causes and treatment, 178 
Wind-galls, causes, defined, 216 
Wine, 35 
Wool compared with fur and hau", 124 

conditions favoring growth of, 125 
improvement of, 125 

effect of ingestion of salt on, 125 
of sulphur on, 125 
Wounds, classification of, 206 

healing of, 207 

infection, 206 

lacerated, treatment of, 208 

of the coronet, treatment, 208 

reopening, indications for, 207 

treatment of antiseptic and aseptic, 
206 
Wry-neck, 279 

Zinc, 31 

acetate, 35 
antidote for, 39 
chloride, 31 

uses of, 321 
oxide, 31 

uses of, 321 
sulphate, 31 

an emetic, 316 

dose for dog, 316 

distinguished from Epsom salts, 

31 
preparation of, 31 
uses of, 321 
Zona pellucida, 268 
Zone of Zinn, anatomy, 93 
Zootechnics, 360 



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